Chrysanthemum ×morifolium

Life form classification follows the system of Raunkiaer (1934), which is based on the position of the buds that survive the unfavourable season. Macrophanerophytes are woody plants that bear the surviving buds at least 2 m above the ground, usually trees; nanophanerophytes are woody plants with surviving buds 0.3–2 m above the ground, usually shrubs; chamaephytes are herbs or low woody plants with surviving buds above the ground, but not more than 30 cm above it; hemicryptophytes are perennial or biennial herbs with surviving buds on aboveground shoots at the level of the ground; geophytes are perennial plants with surviving buds belowground, usually with bulbs, tubers or rhizomes; hydrophytes are plants with surviving buds in water, usually on the bottom of water bodies; therophytes are summer- or winter-annual herbs that survive the unfavourable season only as seeds germinating in autumn, winter or spring.

The data on life forms were taken from the Key to the Flora of the Czech Republic (Kaplan et al. 2019). Newly added alien taxa were assigned to the categories of life forms based on the FloraVeg.EU database (Dřevojan et al. 2022). Some taxa can belong to more than one life form. In such cases, the dominant life form is listed first.

Categories

• macrophanerophyte
• nanophanerophyte
• chamaephyte
• hemicryptophyte
• geophyte
• hydrophyte
• therophyte

Data source and citation

Kaplan Z., Danihelka J., Chrtek J. Jr., Kirschner J., Kubát K., Štěpánek J. & Štech M. (eds) (2019) Klíč ke květeně České republiky [Key to the flora of the Czech Republic]. Ed. 2. – Academia, Praha.

Further references

Dřevojan P., Čeplová N., Štěpánková P. & Axmanová I. (2022) Life form. – www.FloraVeg.EU.
Raunkiaer C. (1934) The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. – Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Data on the presence of leaves on the plant, their metamorphoses and reductions are based on the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010) and the Key to the Flora of the Czech Republic (Kubát et al. 2002).

Categories

• leaves present, not modified
• leaves modified to spines
• leaves modified to tendrils
• leaves modified to phyllodes
• leaves modified to pitchers
• leaves reduced to collars
• leaves reduced to sheaths
• leaves reduced to scales
• leaves absent

Data source and citation

Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Kubát K., Hrouda L., Chrtek J. Jr., Kaplan Z., Kirschner J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2002) Klíč ke květeně České republiky [Key to the flora of the Czech Republic]. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.

Stipules, i.e. paired leaflike appendages at the base of the petiole or sessile leaf blade, can be present or absent. Caducous stipules, i.e. those disappearing soon after the leaf blade has developed (e.g. Prunus), are considered as present. The interpetiolar stipules, morphologically indistinguishable from true leaves and together forming whorls (e.g. Rubiaceae), are considered as true stipules. In contrast, stipules modified into glands (e.g. Lotus) or hairs (e.g. Portulacaceae) are not considered as stipules here.

Information about the presence of stipules was extracted from the descriptions in the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010). In cases of uncertainties, mainly concerning alien taxa, descriptions in the Flora of North America (Flora of North America Editorial Committee 1993), the Flora of China (Wu et al. 1994) and the Flora of Pakistan (www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan) were consulted.

Categories

• present
• absent

Data source and citation

Grulich V., Holubová D., Štěpánková P. & Řezníčková M. (2017) Stipules. – www.pladias.cz.

Further references

Flora of North America Editorial Committee (eds) (1993) Flora of North America North of Mexico. – Oxford University Press, New York.
Flora of Pakistan. – http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
Wu Z., Raven P. H. & Huang D. (eds) (1994) Flora of China. – Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.

Leaf petiole can be present or absent. In some plants, it can be present in some leaves but absent in others. The data were extracted from the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010), the Key to the Flora of the Czech Republic (Kubát et al. 2002), the New Hungarian Herbal (Király et al. 2011) and the Excursion Flora of Germany (Jäger & Werner 2000).

Categories

• present
• mainly present
• both present and absent
• mainly absent
• absent

Data source and citation

Prokešová H. & Grulich V. (2017) Petiole. – www.pladias.cz.

Further references

Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Jäger E. J. & Werner K. (eds) (2000) Rothmaler, Exkursionsflora von Deutschland. Band 3. Gefäßpflanzen: Atlasband. Ed. 10. – Spectrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg & Berlin.
Király G., Virók V. & Molnár V. (eds) (2011) Új Magyar füvészkönyv. Magyarország hajtásos növényei: ábrák [New Hungarian Herbal. The vascular plants of Hungary: Figures]. – Aggteleki Nemzeti Park Igazgatóság, Jósvafő.
Kubát K., Hrouda L., Chrtek J. Jr., Kaplan Z., Kirschner J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2002) Klíč ke květeně České republiky [Key to the flora of the Czech Republic]. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.

Flower colour is reported for nearly all angiosperms except duckweeds (Araceae p. p.) and some hybrids for which data on flower colour were not available.

If a species has more than one flower colour, all colours are reported irrespective of their frequency. This approach is used both for species that regularly form populations with different flower colours (e.g. Corydalis cava and Iris pumila) and for species with occasional occurrence of deviating flower colour (e.g. albinism in Salvia pratensis or pink flowers in Ajuga reptans). However, the whole range of variation is not fully reported in cultivated plants, for which some cultivars of different colour may be ignored (e.g. Gladiolus hortulanus and Callistephus chinensis). In plants with flowers of two colours (e.g. Cypripedium calceolus), both colours are reported. In plants with multi-coloured flowers (e.g. the variegated lip in Ophrys apifera) the predominant colour is reported.

If the flower has a well-developed perianth, the reported flower colour relates to the corolla or the tepals of the homochlamydeous perianth. If such a flower has bracts of a contrasting colour (e.g. Melampyrum nemorosum), their colour is not considered. If the corolla or the homochlamydeous perianth is not developed, the flower colour is based on the calyx (e.g. Daphne mezereum), bracts (e.g. Aristolochia clematitis), the system of bracts and bracteoles in the inflorescence (Euphorbia) or the involucre on secondary peduncles (Bupleurum longifolium). In species of Araceae with spadix and spathe of contrasting colours (e.g. Calla palustris) both colours are reported. The colour of the whole inflorescence is reported for some plants with reduced flowers (e.g. Betula, Salix, some Cyperaceae and Typhaceae). Spikelets in Poaceae are reported as green disregarding a possible violet tint; exceptions include the Melica ciliata agg. and Cortaderia that are reported as white. Also in other, rare cases, the inflorescence colour is reported as flower colour (e.g. green in Ficus carica). In Asteraceae, the colours of the disk flowers and ray flowers are reported separately if the ray flowers are developed and have a contrasting colour (e.g. Bellis perennis). The colour of the involucrum is reported for species with tiny flower heads and indistinct flowers (e.g. Artemisia campestris and Xanthium) and for “immortelles” (e.g. Helichrysum and Xeranthemum).

Information on flower colour is partly based on the field knowledge, partly obtained from various photographs and descriptions in the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010). In the taxa that are not reported in the Flora of the Czech Republic, as well as in unclear cases (especially in alien species), other sources were used, especially the Flora of North America (Flora of North America Editorial Committee 1993), the Flora of China (Wu et al. 1994) and the Flora of Pakistan (http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan).

Categories

• white (including grey and silvery, and rare cases of individuals with white colour) – e.g. ray flowers of Leucanthemum vulgare, albinotic plants of Glechoma hederacea, catkins of Salix caprea
• yellow-white (including white-yellow and cream) – e.g. Scabiosa ochroleuca
• green-white (including white-green and greenish) – e.g. Orthilia secunda
• green – e.g. Poa pratensis (the colour relates to the glumes and lemmas)
• yellow-green (including green-yellow) – e.g. Acer pseudoplatanus, Rhamnus cathartica
• yellow – e.g. Taraxacum
• orange – e.g. Pilosella aurantiaca
• pink (including white-pink, pink-white and dark pink) – e.g. Malva alcea, Rosa canina
• pink-violet – e.g. Allium schoenoprasum
• red – e.g. Papaver rhoeas
• red-violet (includes all the hues of purple, pink-red and violet-red) – e.g. Astragalus onobrychis, Cirsium palustre
• violet (including dark violet and black-violet) – e.g. Bartsia alpina, Salvia verticillata
• blue – e.g. Centaurea cyanus
• blue-violet – e.g. Aconitum plicatum
• brown (including yellow-brown, brown-yellow, beige and brown-violet) – e.g. Euonymus verrucosus, Neottia nidus-avis
• red-brown – e.g. Asarum europaeum, Scrophularia nodosa
• black – e.g. Carex acuta (the colour relates to the colour of bracts)

Categories

• white
• yellow-white
• green-white
• green
• yellow-green
• yellow
• orange
• pink
• pink-violet
• red
• red-violet
• violet
• blue
• blue-violet
• brown
• red-brown
• black

Data source and citation

Štěpánková P. & Grulich V. (2019) Flower colour. – www.pladias.cz.

Further references

Flora of North America Editorial Committee (eds) (1993) Flora of North America North of Mexico. – Oxford University Press, New York.
Flora of Pakistan. – http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
Wu Z., Raven P. H. & Huang D. (eds) (1994) Flora of China. – Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.

Perianth (perigon), i.e. the non-reproductive part of the angiosperm flower, can be classified into heterochlamydeous and homochlamydeous. Heterochlamydeous flowers are divided into calyx and corolla. In homochlamydeous flowers, calyx and corolla are indistinguishable. Perianth or some of its parts can be reduced or absent; flowers with no perianth are called achlamydeous.

In Apiaceae, the presence of the calyx teeth is assessed as a reduced calyx; if these teeth are not visible, the calyx is considered as absent. In Asteraceae, the presence of a pappus, scales or a collar-like structure is considered as a reduced calyx; if no such structures are present, the calyx is considered as absent. In Cyperaceae, the presence of perianth bristles is assessed as a reduced perianth. All members of the Poaceae family are considered as plants with a reduced perianth. The perianth in the genus Basella is arbitrarily classified as a reduced calyx though it is also often considered as a reduced homochlamydeous perianth. The character states “homochlamydeous, sometimes absent” and “homochlamydeous, reduced or absent” mean that in one plant some flowers may have a well-developed or reduced perianth, while other flowers may be achlamydeous (e.g. Atriplex).

The information was extracted mainly from the descriptions in the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010). For the taxa not treated in that flora or if uncertainties occurred, mainly concerning some alien taxa, the descriptions in the Flora of North America (Flora of North America Editorial Committee 1993), the Flora of China (Wu et al. 1994) and the Flora of Pakistan (www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan) were consulted.

Categories

• homochlamydeous
• homochlamydeous, sometimes reduced
• homochlamydeous, sometimes reduced or absent
• homochlamydeous, sometimes absent
• homochlamydeous, reduced or absent
• calyx and corolla
• calyx and corolla, corolla reduced or absent
• calyx and corolla, corolla sometimes absent
• calyx present, corolla sometimes reduced
• calyx present, corolla reduced
• calyx present, corolla reduced or absent
• calyx present, corolla sometimes absent
• calyx present, corolla absent
• calyx reduced, corolla present
• calyx sometimes absent, corolla present
• calyx absent, corolla present
• calyx absent, corolla sometimes present
• reduced
• reduced or absent
• flower achlamydeous

Data source and citation

Grulich V., Prokešová H. & Štěpánková P. (2017) Perianth type. – www.pladias.cz.

Further references

Flora of North America Editorial Committee (eds) (1993) Flora of North America North of Mexico. – Oxford University Press, New York.
Flora of Pakistan. – http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
Wu Z., Raven P. H. & Huang D. (eds) (1994) Flora of China. – Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.

The calyx of angiosperm flowers can be fused into a calyx tube (synsepalous calyx) or composed of distinct sepals (aposepalous). In some plants (especially in Asteraceae) the calyx is modified into a ring of fine feathery hairs called the pappus. Taxa with both synsepalous and aposepalous calyx (e.g. Platanus) are classified as “synsepalous and aposepalous”. A cup-shaped tube formed of fused sepals, petals and stamens is called hypanthium. However, hypanthium may also be interpreted as a product of an intercalary growth of the floral axis (receptacle) up and around the carpels, forming a cup-shaped structure, sometimes even fusing with the outer walls of the carpels and making the ovary inferior. In most genera of the Onagraceae family, the hypanthium forms a floral tube fairly overtopping the apex of the ovary.

The data were taken from the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010), the Key to the Flora of the Czech Republic (Kubát et al. 2002), the New Hungarian Herbal (Király et al. 2011) and the Excursion Flora of Germany (Jäger & Werner 2000).

Categories

• aposepalous
• fused at the base
• synsepalous and aposepalous
• synsepalous
• pappus
• hypanthium

Data source and citation

Prokešová H. & Grulich V. (2017) Calyx fusion. – www.pladias.cz.

Further references

Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Jäger E. J. & Werner K. (eds) (2000) Rothmaler, Exkursionsflora von Deutschland. Band 3. Gefäßpflanzen: Atlasband. Ed. 10. – Spectrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg & Berlin.
Király G., Virók V. & Molnár V. (eds) (2011) Új Magyar füvészkönyv. Magyarország hajtásos növényei: ábrák [New Hungarian Herbal. The vascular plants of Hungary: Figures]. – Aggteleki Nemzeti Park Igazgatóság, Jósvafő.
Kubát K., Hrouda L., Chrtek J. Jr., Kaplan Z., Kirschner J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2002) Klíč ke květeně České republiky [Key to the flora of the Czech Republic]. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.

Inflorescence types follow the morphological system used in the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010). As the Czech terminology used for inflorescences does not match the English terminology, we use Latin terms in the English version of the Pladias Database. The exact identification of the inflorescence type is often equivocal because of varying interpretations of the same object. In species with unisexual flowers, male and female flowers can occur in different inflorescence types. In other cases, it is not possible to identify the inflorescence without detailed knowledge of evolutionary morphology, e.g. umbella vs pseudumbella in the genus Butomus. There are also compound inflorescences, in some cases with very different structure of their parts, especially in Asteraceae, which can have even triple inflorescences (e.g. Echinops sphaerocephalus often has an anthella ex capitulis anthodiorum composita).

The information was extracted mainly from the descriptions in the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010). For the taxa not treated in that flora or if some uncertainties occurred, mainly concerning some alien taxa, information was taken from the descriptions in the Flora of North America (Flora of North America Editorial Committee 1993), the Flora of China (Wu et al. 1994) and the Flora of Pakistan (www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan). In critical groups (e.g. Rubus), especially in recently described species, inflorescence type was taken from the original descriptions.

Categories

• pseudumbella e cyathiis composita
• capitulum
• capitulum e floribus masculis compositum
• capitulum e spiculis compositum
• capitulum e verticillastris compositum
• capitulum e floribus femineis compositum
• capitulum ex anthodiis compositum
• racemus
• racemus e capitulis compositus
• racemus ex corymbis anthodiorum compositus
• racemus e spiculis compositus
• racemus e verticillastris compositus
• racemus ex umbellis compositus
• racemus e floribus masculis compositus
• racemus e floribus femineis compositus
• racemus e fasciculis compositus
• racemus ex anthodiis compositus
• racemus ex anthodiis masculis compositus
• racemus e cincinnis compositus
• corymbothyrsus
• corymbothyrsus e fasciculis compositus
• corymbothyrsus ex fasciculis anthodiorum compositus
• corymbothyrsus ex anthodiis compositus
• corymbus
• corymbus ex anthodiis compositus
• amentum
• amentum e floribus masculis
• amentum e floribus femineis
• spica
• spica e spiculis composita
• spica e floribus masculis composita
• spica e floribus femineis composita
• spicula
• anthella
• anthella ex capitulis anthodiorum composita
• anthella e spiculis composita
• anthella e floribus masculis composita
• anthella ex anthodiis composita
• flores solitarii
• flores solitarii masculi
• flores solitarii feminei
• panicula
• panicula e capitulis composita
• panicula ex capitulis anthodiorum composita
• panicula e corymbis composita
• panicula e spiculis composita
• panicula e spiculis masculis composita
• panicula e pseudospicis composita
• panicula e floribus masculis composita
• panicula e fasciculis composita
• panicula e bostrychibus composita
• panicula ex anthodiis composita
• panicula e dichasiis composita
• panicula e cincinnis composita
• pseudospica
• pseudospica e capitulis composita
• pseudospica e spiculis composita
• pseudospica e verticillastris composita
• pseudospica e floribus masculis composita
• pseudospica ex anthodiis composita
• pseudumbella
• pseudumbella ex anthodiis composita
• verticillastrum
• pseudoracemus
• umbella
• umbella e spicis spicularum composita
• spadix
• spadix e floribus femineis compositus
• umbella composita
• fasciculus
• fasciculus e floribus masculis compositus
• fasciculus e floribus femineis compositus
• fasciculus ex anthodiis femineis compositus
• syconium
• strobilus
• bostryx
• anthodium
• anthodium solitarium
• rhipidium
• dichasium
• dichasium e floribus femineis compositum
• dichasium ex anthodiis compositum
• cincinnus

Data source and citation

Grulich V. & Štěpánková P. (2019) Inflorescence type. – www.pladias.cz.

Further references

Flora of North America Editorial Committee (eds) (1993) Flora of North America North of Mexico. – Oxford University Press, New York.
Flora of Pakistan. – http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
Wu Z., Raven P. H. & Huang D. (eds) (1994) Flora of China. – Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.

Plants use different dispersal modes, also called dispersal syndromes, depending on different dispersal vectors. For example, anemochory is the dispersal by wind, hydrochory by water, epizoochory by attachment to an animal body and endozoochory by animals via ingestion. However, single plant species usually use a combination of several dispersal modes rather than a single mode. Distinct combinations of dispersal modes repeatedly occurring in different plant taxa are called dispersal strategies. Sádlo et al. (2018) distinguished nine dispersal strategies named for the genus names of typical representatives. Taxa of the Czech flora are assigned to individual strategies based on this source.

Categories

• Allium type – mainly autochory, less frequently anemochory, endozoochory and epizoochory. This is the most common dispersal strategy, including about 56% taxa of the Czech flora. About half of the included taxa are dispersal generalists lacking a clear morphological indication of anemochory or zoochory. Most myrmecochorous or probably myrmecochorous species are also assigned to this category.
• Bidens type – mainly autochory and epizoochory, less frequently endozoochory. This dispersal strategy is characterized by two essential dispersal modes, of which autochory is the more important, despite the presence of morphological structures indicating epizoochory.
• Cornus type – mainly autochory and endozoochory. Herbaceous plants, shrubs and small trees with fleshy fruit, often of the Rosaceae family, typically have this strategy. Furthermore, tall trees bearing large, heavy and nutrient-rich seeds are also included.
• Epilobium type – mainly anemochory and autochory, less frequently endozoochory and epizoochory. This dispersal strategy is typical of taxa growing in mesic and dry habitats.
• Lycopodium type – mainly anemochory, less frequently autochory, endozoochory, epizoochory and hydrochory. This dispersal strategy relies on light, very small spores and seeds that are dispersed, besides wind, by a wide range of vectors. Compared to other strategies, the role of autochory is small.
• Phragmites type – mainly anemochory and hydrochory, less frequently autochory, endozoochory and epizoochory. Wetland taxa with light diaspores (both seeds and fruits) equipped with a hairy flying apparatus. Most of the taxa with this dispersal strategy lack vegetative diaspores. Woody plants, stout clonal graminoids and herbaceous plants are typical growth forms associated with this dispersal strategy.
• Sparganium type – mainly autochory and hydrochory, less frequently endozoochory and epizoochory. This dispersal strategy is a wetland analogue of the Wolffia type, assigned to aquatic plants. It applies mainly to monocotyledonous taxa producing achenes with good buoyancy and with vegetative diaspores having an important role.
• Wolffia type – mainly hydrochory, less frequently endozoochory and epizoochory. This dispersal strategy is typical of aquatic macrophytes spread by fruit, seed or spores. However, vegetative reproduction dominates in most cases, including stem fragmentation, the formation of stolons or, in Lemnaceae, budding colonies.
• Zea type. Taxa with this dispersal strategy rarely or never disperse by generative diaspores and do not form vegetative aboveground diaspores.

Categories

• Allium (mainly autochory)
• Bidens (mainly autochory and epizoochory)
• Cornus (mainly autochory and endozoochory)
• Epilobium (mainly anemochory and autochory)
• Lycopodium (mainly anemochory)
• Phragmites (mainly anemochory and hydrochory)
• Sparganium (mainly autochory and hydrochory)
• Wolffia (mainly hydrochory)
• Zea (no dispersal)

Data source and citation

Sádlo J., Chytrý M., Pergl J. & Pyšek P. (2018) Plant dispersal strategies: a new classification based on themultiple dispersal modes of individual species. – Preslia 90: 1–22.

Plant parasitism is based on either of two mechanisms. The first group of parasitic plants involves those parasitizing directly on another plant. These plants are called haustorial parasites. They take resources from the host’s vascular bundles using a specialized organ, the haustorium. The second group comprises mycoheterotrophic plants, which parasitize fungi via mycorrhizal interaction and gain organic carbon from them.

Plants in both groups display variable dependence on their host organism. The haustorial parasites include two distinct functional groups: green hemiparasites and holoparasites. Green hemiparasites are partial parasites that retain photosynthetic ability but obtain all mineral resources and a part of the organic carbon from the host. Holoparasites are non-green full parasites unable to photosynthesize. Location of the haustorial attachment to the host (root or stem) is another essential functional trait. The distinction between partial and full parasitism in haustorial parasites may not be straightforward. In the Czech flora, it is nevertheless possible to distinguish between stem hemi- and holoparasites, which are difficult to separate on the global scale (Těšitel 2016). Consequently, we use a traditional classification here and classify as holoparasites those plants that are in adulthood mostly without chlorophyll, even though some of them might have some chlorophyll and perform residual photosynthesis (e.g. Cuscuta).

In mycoheterotrophic plants, there is a continuum from initial mycoheterotrophs through partial mycoheterotrophs to full mycoheterotrophs. In the initial mycoheterotrophs, only initial stages, i.e. gametophytes or seedlings, are dependent on the fungus, whereas adult plants are autotrophic, while still depending on mycorrhizal symbiosis as a source of water and mineral nutrients. In the partial mycoheterotrophs, photosynthesizing adults obtain from their mycorrhizal fungi not only water and mineral nutrients but also different amounts of organic carbon. The full mycoheterotrophs lost their chlorophyll and are thus fully parasitic. In some partial mycoheterotrophs (e.g. the genus Cephalanthera), chlorotic individuals can be found, which lack chlorophyll and fully depend on their hosts.

Classification of haustorial parasites follows Těšitel (2016) with a further distinction of stem hemi- and holoparasites, and identification of mycoheterotrophs follows Merckx (2012).

Categories

• autotrophic
• root hemiparasite
• stem hemiparasite
• root holoparasite
• stem holoparasite
• partial or initial mycoheterotroph
• full mycoheterotroph

Data source and citation

Těšitel J., Těšitelová T., Blažek P. & Lepš J. (2016) Parasitism and mycoheterotrophy. – www.pladias.cz.

Further references

Těšitel J. (2016) Functional biology of parasitic plants: a review. – Plant Ecology and Evolution 149: 5–20.
Merckx V. S. F. T. (2012) Mycoheterotrophy: the biology of plants living on fungi. – Springer, Berlin.

Carnivorous plants attract, trap and kill their prey, animals (mainly insects and small crustaceans) and protozoans, and subsequently absorb the nutrients from their dead bodies.

Categories

• carnivorous
• non-carnivorous

Data source and citation

Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.

Plants are classified into those without symbiotic nitrogen fixers and those that form a symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The latter are further divided into those forming a symbiosis with rhizobia (e.g. Allorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Rhizobium and Sinorhizobium) and those forming the actinorhizal symbiosis with the genus Frankia, the latter called actinorhizal plants (Bond 1983, Pawlowski & Sprent 2007, Sprent 2008, Benson 2016).

In the Czech flora, the rhizobial group is represented by virtually all legumes (family Fabaceae). Exceptions are three non-native cultivated woody species (Cercis siliquastrum, Gleditsia triacanthos, Gymnocladus dioicus) that do not nodulate (Tedersoo et al. 2018), which is generally considered as evidence for the absence of symbiosis. However, some studies suggest that functional nitrogen-fixing symbiosis may exist even without visible nodules (Bryan et al. 1996). Roots of Gleditsia triacanthos were recorded to contain bacterial structures similar to those in nodules with rhizobia, as well as the presence of nitrogenase (Faria et al. 2002). These genera also contain genes probably related to nodule formation, although their exact function is unclear (Graves et al. 1999). Because convincing evidence of nitrogen fixation in these species is missing, we consider them non-nitrogen-fixing for the time being.

Symbiosis with rhizobia was found in several other families (Tedersoo et al. 2018). Of these, the Czech flora includes only casually introduced Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), in which a parallel infection with cyanobacteria was described (Sabet 1946, Mahmood & Athar 1998).

The actinorhizal group is represented in the Czech flora mainly by alder species (Alnus spp.) and also by cultivated species in the family Elaeagnaceae – Elaeagnus spp. and Hippophaë rhamnoides (Bond 1983, Benson 2016).

Categories

• symbiosis with rhizobia
• symbiosis with Frankia
• no nitrogen-fixing symbionts

Data source and citation

Blažek P. & Lepš J. (2016) Symbiotic nitrogen fixation. – www.pladias.cz.

Further references

Benson D. R. (2016) Frankia & actinorhizal plants. – https://frankia.mcb.uconn.edu/ (accessed on 1 Feb 2021).
Bond G. (1983) Taxonomy and distribution of non-legume nitrogen-fixing systems. – In: Gordon J. C. & Wheeler C. T. (eds), Biological nitrogen fixation in forests: foundations and applications, p. 55–87, Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W. Junk Publ., The Hague.
Bryan J. A., Berlyn G. P. & Gordon J. C. (1996) Toward a new concept of the evolution of symbiotic nitrogen fixation in the Leguminosae. – Plant and Soil 186: 151–159.
de Faria S. M., Olivares F. L. & Xavier R. P. (2002) Nodule-structure in the roots of Gleditsia spp. a non-nodulating legume genus. – In: Pedrosa F. O., Hungria M., Yates G. & Newton W. E. (eds), Nitrogen fixation: from molecules to crop productivity. Current plant science and biotechnology in agriculture, vol 38. Springer, Dordrecht, p. 337.
Graves W. R., Foster C. M., Rosin F. M. & Schrader J. A. (1999) Two early nodulation genes are not markers for the capacity of leguminous nursery crops to form root nodules. – Journal of Environmental Horticulture 17: 126–129.
Mahmood A. & Athar M. (1998) Cyanobacterial root nodules in Tribulus terrestris L. (Zygophyllaceae). – In: Malik K. A. & Sajjad Mirza M. & Ladha J. K. (eds), Nitrogen fixation with non-legumes, Springer, Dordrecht, p. 345–350.
Pawlowski K. & Sprent J. I. (2007) Comparison between actinorhizal and legume symbioses. – In: Pawlowski K. & Newton W. E. (eds), Nitrogen-fixing actinorhizal symbioses, Springer, Dordrecht, p. 261–288.
Sabet Y. S. (1946) Bacterial root nodules in the Zygophyllaceae. – Nature 157: 656–657.
Sprent J. I. (2008) Evolution and diversity of legume symbiosis. – In: Dilworth M. J., James E. K., Sprent J. I. & Newton W. E. (eds), Nitrogen-fixing leguminous symbioses, Springer, Dordrecht, p. 1–21.
Tedersoo L., Laanisto L., Rahimlou S., Toussaint A., Hallikma T. & Pärtel M. (2018) Global database of plants with root-symbiotic nitrogen fixation: NodDB. – Journal of Vegetation Science 29: 560–568.

Taxa are classified according to whether they are native or alien to the Czech Republic. Following the definitions used in invasion ecology, native taxa are those that have evolved in the area of the Czech Republic or immigrated there without human assistance from the area where they had evolved. Alien taxa are those whose presence is a result of intentional or unintentional introduction by human activity and can be divided based on their residence time. The alien taxa are divided based on their residence time into archaeophytes and neophytes. Archaeophytes are taxa occurring in the wild that were introduced between the beginning of Neolithic agriculture and the year 1500, i.e. the beginning of intercontinental overseas trade after the discovery of the Americas. Neophytes are taxa occurring in the wild that were introduced after 1500 (see Richardson et al. 2000 for detailed definitions). Some taxa introduced in the Late Middle Ages or Early Modern Period, but with no exact information on the introduction date, were assigned to a joint category of Archaeophyte/neophyte. Additionally, some frequently cultivated taxa that are not known to have escaped from cultivation are listed as a separate category Cultivated. Category Lack of evidence of occurrence in the wild includes taxa for which spontaneous occurrence in the wild is doubtful. Taxa assigned to the category Absent in Czechia are not sufficiently supported by reliable records or occurred just once and disappeared.

The data included in the database follow the third edition of the Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (Pyšek et al. 2022 and references related to individual taxa therein).

Categories

• native
• archaeophyte
• neophyte
• archaeophyte/neophyte
• cultivated only
• lack of evidence of occurrence in the wild
• absent in Czechia

Data source and citation

Pyšek P., Sádlo J., Chrtek J. Jr., Chytrý M., Kaplan Z., Pergl J., Pokorná A., Axmanová I., Čuda J., Doležal J., Dřevojan P., Hejda M., Kočár P., Kortz A., Lososová Z., Lustyk P., Skálová H., Štajerová K., Večeřa M., Vítková M., Wild J. & Danihelka J. (2022) Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (3rd edition): species richness, status, distributions, habitats, regional invasion levels, introduction pathways and impacts. – Preslia 94: 447–577.

Further references

Richardson D. M., Pyšek P., Rejmánek M., Barbour M. G., Panetta F. D. & West C. J. (2000) Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. – Diversity and Distributions 6: 93–107.

Invasion status is a classification of alien taxa into three categories reflecting their position in the invasion process. Alien taxa that only occasionally reproduce in the wild in the Czech Republic, do not form self-replacing populations, and rely on repeated introductions for their persistence are termed casual. Naturalized taxa are alien plants that reproduce in the wild and sustain populations over many life cycles without direct intervention by humans (or despite human intervention). Invasive plants are naturalized plants that produce reproductive offspring, often in large numbers, at considerable distances from parent plants and thus have the potential to spread over an extensive area (Richardson et al. 2000, 2011). This classification does not apply to native taxa, which are reported as separate categories. The data were taken from the third edition of the Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (Pyšek et al. 2022 and references related to individual taxa therein).

Categories

• casual
• naturalized
• invasive
• native

Data source and citation

Pyšek P., Sádlo J., Chrtek J. Jr., Chytrý M., Kaplan Z., Pergl J., Pokorná A., Axmanová I., Čuda J., Doležal J., Dřevojan P., Hejda M., Kočár P., Kortz A., Lososová Z., Lustyk P., Skálová H., Štajerová K., Večeřa M., Vítková M., Wild J. & Danihelka J. (2022) Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (3rd edition): species richness, status, distributions, habitats, regional invasion levels, introduction pathways and impacts. – Preslia 94: 447–577.

Further references

Richardson D. M., Pyšek P. & Carlton J. T. (2011) A compendium of essential concepts and terminology in biological invasions. – In: Richardson D. M. (ed.), Fifty years of invasion ecology: the legacy of Charles Elton, p. 409–420, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
Richardson D. M., Pyšek P., Rejmánek M., Barbour M. G., Panetta F. D. & West C. J. (2000) Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. – Diversity and Distributions 6: 93–107.

This information is given for alien taxa only. These taxa are classified according to their geographic origin (native range) at the level of continents; those with a native range encompassing more than one continent are assigned to two or more categories. Origin in Europe refers to the non-Mediterranean parts of this continent other than the Czech Republic. The Mediterranean region comprises parts of southern Europe, northern Africa and western Asia from Turkey and Israel to Afghanistan, which are characterized by the Mediterranean-type climate and the occurrence of sclerophyllous evergreen vegetation. Conversely, records of origin in Africa, Asia and Europe do not relate to the Mediterranean part of these continents. Hybrids and species that originated through recent hybridization are listed as a separate category. Anecophytes are taxa for which native range is unknown or highly uncertain. The data were taken from the third edition of the Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (Pyšek et al. 2022 and references related to individual taxa therein).

Categories

• Europe
• Mediterranean
• North America
• Central America
• South America
• Asia
• Africa
• Australia
• hybrid origin
• anecophyte

Data source and citation

Pyšek P., Sádlo J., Chrtek J. Jr., Chytrý M., Kaplan Z., Pergl J., Pokorná A., Axmanová I., Čuda J., Doležal J., Dřevojan P., Hejda M., Kočár P., Kortz A., Lososová Z., Lustyk P., Skálová H., Štajerová K., Večeřa M., Vítková M., Wild J. & Danihelka J. (2022) Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (3rd edition): species richness, status, distributions, habitats, regional invasion levels, introduction pathways and impacts. – Preslia 94: 447–577.

Period of introduction is divided into categories from the Neolithic to the present time. The assessment is based on archaeobotanical and also floristic data where applicable. For taxa without precise dating, only merged categories of longer time periods are provided.

Data were extracted from the third edition of the Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (Pyšek et al. 2022).

Categories

• Neolithic (5600–4200 BCE)
• Eneolithic (4200–2300 BCE)
• Bronze Age (2300–750 BCE)
• Iron Age (750–20 BCE)
• Roman and Migration Periods (20 BCE – 550 CE)
• Early Middle Ages (550–1200)
• Late Middle Ages (1200–1500)
• Early Modern Period (1500–1800)
• Late Modern Period (1800–1950)
• Recent Past (1950–2000)
• Present (after 2000)
• Prehistoric Period and Early Middle Ages (merged category, 5600 př. n. l. – 1200 n. l.)
• Late Middle Ages and Early Modern Period (merged category, 1200–1800)
• Late Modern Period, Recent Past and Present (merged category, after 1800)

Data source and citation

Pyšek P., Sádlo J., Chrtek J. Jr., Chytrý M., Kaplan Z., Pergl J., Pokorná A., Axmanová I., Čuda J., Doležal J., Dřevojan P., Hejda M., Kočár P., Kortz A., Lososová Z., Lustyk P., Skálová H., Štajerová K., Večeřa M., Vítková M., Wild J. & Danihelka J. (2022) Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (3rd edition): species richness, status, distributions, habitats, regional invasion levels, introduction pathways and impacts. – Preslia 94: 447–577.

This information is available for alien taxa only. Taxa are classified according to the mode of introduction, with the distinction made between an intentional (deliberate) and unintentional (accidental) pathway (Hulme et al. 2008). A taxon can be assigned to more than one introduction pathway. The pathway classification and data for individual taxa follow the third edition of the Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (Pyšek et al. 2022).

The classification includes the following introduction pathways:

Intentional introduction: 1 ornamental – cultivation for ornamental purposes in a garden or public green space; 2 collection – cultivation for scientific or collection purposes in a garden or park; 3 nature – ornamental planting in natural habitats, including deceptive enrichment of regional flora or inclusion of alien plants in seed mixtures sold as “wild meadows”; 4 crops – cultivation of crops such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, spices; 5 forest – forestry and wildlife management, e.g. planting trees in forestry plantations or cultivation of crops in forests as a fodder for game; 6 landscaping, e.g. afforestation, land reclamation, roadside tree belts, tree alleys; 7 other – cultivation for other purposes, e.g. forage crops, plants for basketry, beekeeping and pharmacy.

Unintentional introduction: 8 agriculture – introduction associated with agriculture: weeds in fields (e.g. cereals, flax), vegetable beds and vineyards; 9 plantation – introduction associated with fodder crop cultivation, sowing meadows and planting forest trees; 10 horticulture – introduction associated with the horticultural sale of ornamental plants, i.e. weeds of ornamental gardens; 11 traffic – dispersal by vehicles, trains, shipping, urban tourism; 12 industry – dispersal through mining or production/distribution of commodities, e.g. ores, wool; 13 humans – other unintended vectors associated with anthropogenic habitats; 14 nature – other unintended vectors associated with natural habitats, e.g. dispersal by wind, water, animals.

Categories

• intentional – ornamental
• intentional – collections
• intentional – nature
• intentional – crops
• intentional – forest
• intentional – landscaping
• intentional – other
• unintentional – agriculture
• unintentional – plantations
• unintentional – horticulture
• unintentional – traffic
• unintentional – industry
• unintentional – anthropogenic
• unintentional – nature
• deliberate introduction
• accidental introduction

Data source and citation

Pyšek P., Sádlo J., Chrtek J. Jr., Chytrý M., Kaplan Z., Pergl J., Pokorná A., Axmanová I., Čuda J., Doležal J., Dřevojan P., Hejda M., Kočár P., Kortz A., Lososová Z., Lustyk P., Skálová H., Štajerová K., Večeřa M., Vítková M., Wild J. & Danihelka J. (2022) Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (3rd edition): species richness, status, distributions, habitats, regional invasion levels, introduction pathways and impacts. – Preslia 94: 447–577.

Further references

Hulme P. E., Bacher S., Kenis M., Klotz S., Kühn I., Minchin D., Nentwig W., Olenin S., Panov V., Pergl J., Pyšek P., Roques A., Sol D., Solarz W. & Vilà M. (2008) Grasping at the routes of biological invasions: a framework for integrating pathways into policy. – Journal of Applied Ecology 45: 403–414.