Plant heights are relevant for the Czech Republic. They are measured in metres and relate to fully developed mature generative plants growing in the wild. Each taxon is characterized by two values: minimum (lower limit of the common range) and maximum (upper limit of the common range). The data were taken from the Key to the Flora of the Czech Republic (Kaplan et al. 2019).
Kaplan Z., Danihelka J., Chrtek J. Jr., Kirschner J., Kubát K., Štěpánek J. & Štech M. (eds) (2019) Klíč ke květeně České republiky [Key to the flora of the Czech Republic]. Ed. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Growth form describes the potential life span of the plant and its parts (ramets), its reproductive strategy and durability of its aboveground parts (Klimešová et al. 2016, Ottaviani et al. 2017). Here the growth form is classified into nine categories, which also consider herbaceous vs woody nature of the stem. Annual herbs live for one season only and reproduce by seed usually in the same season in which they germinated. They may but need not be clonal; their clonality typically does not result in fragmentation. Perennial herbs are divided into three categories: (i) monocarpic perennial non-clonal herbs, which reproduce sexually only once in their life and do not possess woody aboveground parts or organs of clonal growth, (ii) polycarpic perennial non-clonal herbs, which reproduce sexually several times during their life and do not possess organs of clonal growth, and (iii) clonal herbs, which possess organs of clonal growth enabling them to make fragments during their life and to form independent units (ramets) by vegetative reproduction; the whole plant reproduces sexually several times during its life, while individual ramets may reproduce once or several times during their life. The other categories include woody plants, which may but need not possess organs of clonal growth and may be able or not of fragmentation and vegetative reproduction. The woody plants are divided into dwarf shrubs (woody plants lower than 30 cm, also including suffruticose plants with erect, herbaceous shoots growing from woody stems at the base, which die out in autumn except for the lowest part with regenerative buds), shrubs (woody plants higher than 30 cm, branched at the base), trees (woody plants with trunk and crown), woody lianas and parasitic epiphytes, which include only two species of the Czech flora, Loranthus europaeus and Viscum album.
Data were partly taken from the aggregated CLO-PLA 3.4 database (Klimešová et al. 2017). The CLO-PLA categories were further divided into separate categories for herbaceous vs woody plants, and taxa not included in CLO-PLA were added.
Dřevojan P. (2020) Growth form. – www.pladias.cz.
Klimešová J., Nobis M. P. & Herben T. (2016) Links between shoot and plant longevity and plant economics
spectrum: Environmental and demographic implications. – Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and
Systematics 22: 55–62.
Klimešová J., Danihelka J., Chrtek J., de Bello F. & Herben T. (2017) CLO-PLA: a database of clonal and budbank
traits of the Central European flora. – Ecology 98: 1179.
Ottaviani G., Martínková J., Herben T., Pausas J. G. & Klimešová J. (2017) On plant modularity traits: functions
and challenges. – Trends in Plant Science 22: 648–651.
Life form classification follows the system of Raunkiaer (1934), which is based on the position of the buds that survive the unfavourable season. Macrophanerophytes are woody plants that bear the surviving buds at least 2 m above the ground, usually trees; nanophanerophytes are woody plants with surviving buds 0.3–2 m above the ground, usually shrubs; chamaephytes are herbs or low woody plants with surviving buds above the ground, but not more than 30 cm above it; hemicryptophytes are perennial or biennial herbs with surviving buds on aboveground shoots at the level of the ground; geophytes are perennial plants with surviving buds belowground, usually with bulbs, tubers or rhizomes; hydrophytes are plants with surviving buds in water, usually on the bottom of water bodies; therophytes are summer- or winter-annual herbs that survive the unfavourable season only as seeds germinating in autumn, winter or spring.
The data on life forms were taken from the Key to the Flora of the Czech Republic (Kaplan et al. 2019). Newly added alien taxa were assigned to the categories of life forms based on the FloraVeg.EU database (Dřevojan et al. 2022). Some taxa can belong to more than one life form. In such cases, the dominant life form is listed first.
Kaplan Z., Danihelka J., Chrtek J. Jr., Kirschner J., Kubát K., Štěpánek J. & Štech M. (eds) (2019) Klíč ke květeně České republiky [Key to the flora of the Czech Republic]. Ed. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Dřevojan P., Čeplová N., Štěpánková P. & Axmanová I. (2022) Life form. – www.FloraVeg.EU.
Raunkiaer C. (1934) The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. – Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Grime (1974, 1979) distinguished three basic ecological strategies of plants: competitive strategy (C), advantageous in habitats where resources are abundant, conditions not extreme and disturbance level is low; stress tolerant strategy (S), advantageous where resources are scarce, conditions severe, but disturbance is uncommon; and ruderal strategy (R), advantageous where resources are abundant and conditions not extreme, but disturbance level is high. There are also intermediate strategies in all possible combinations of the three basic types (CR, CS, SR, CSR). Data were taken from the BiolFlor database (Klotz & Kühn 2002).
Klotz S. & Kühn I. (2002) Ökologische Strategietypen. – In: Klotz S., Kühn I. & Durka W. (eds), BIOLFLOR: eine Datenbank mit biologisch-ökologischen Merkmalen zur Flora von Deutschland, Schriftenreihe für Vegetationskunde 38: 119–126.
Grime J. P. (1974) Vegetation classification by reference to strategies. – Nature 250: 26–31.
Grime J. P. (1979) Plant strategies and vegetation processes. – Wiley, Chichester.
Grime (1974, 1979) distinguished three basic ecological strategies of plants: (i) competitive strategy (C), advantageous in stable habitats where resources are abundant, conditions not extreme and the disturbance level low; (ii) stress-tolerant strategy (S), advantageous where resources are scarce, conditions severe and highly variable, but disturbance is uncommon; and (iii) ruderal strategy (R), advantageous where resources are abundant and conditions not extreme, but the disturbance frequency is high.
Taxa of the Czech flora were assigned to life strategies based on the method proposed by Pierce et al. (2017). The life strategies calculated using this method represent the trade-off in resource investment between three key leaf traits: leaf area (LA; high in competitive taxa), leaf dry matter content (LDMC; high in stress-tolerant taxa) and specific leaf area (SLA; high in ruderal taxa). Scores that express the degree of C-, S- and R-selection are calculated from these traits. These scores are expressed on a percentage scale, and the sum of the three scores for individual taxa is 100%. Based on these scores, the taxa are assigned to the basic primary strategies C, S and R, intermediate strategies CS, CR, SR and CSR, and transitions between them, e.g. C/CS or SR/CSR (sensu Grime 1979). The data on leaf traits for these calculations or calculated values were taken from the LEDA database (Kleyer et al. 2008) and some other sources (Bjorkman et al. 2018, Dayrell et al. 2018, Findurová 2018, Tavşanoğlu & Pausas 2018, Wang et al. 2018, Guo et al. 2019). The Pladias database contains both the score values for the three categories C, S, R and the categorized life strategies.
Guo W.-Y. & Pierce S. (2019) Life strategy. – www.pladias.cz.
Bjorkman A. D., Myers-Smith I. H., Elmendorf S. C. et al. (2018) Tundra Trait Team: A database of plant traits spanning the tundra biome. – Global Ecology and Biogeography 27: 1402–1411.
Dayrell R. L., Arruda A. J., Pierce S., Negreiros D., Meyer P. B., Lambers H. & Silveira F. A. (2018)
Ontogenetic shifts in plant ecological strategies. – Functional Ecology 32: 2730–2741.
Findurová A. (2018) Variabilita listových znaků SLA a LDMC vybraných druhů rostlin České republiky [Variability
of leaf traits SLA and LDMC in selected species of the Czech flora]. – Master thesis, Masaryk University, Brno.
Grime J. P. (1974) Vegetation classification by reference to strategies. – Nature 250: 26–31.
Grime J. P. (1979) Plant strategies and vegetation processes. – Wiley, Chichester.
Kleyer M., Bekker R. M., Knevel I. C., Bakker J. P., Thompson K., Sonnenschein M., Poschlod P., van
Groenendael J. M., Klimeš L., Klimešová J., Klotz S., Rusch G. M., Hermy M., Adriaens D., Boedeltje G.,
Bossuyt B., Dannemann A., Endels P., Götzenberger L., Hodgson J. G., Jackel A. K., Kühn I., Kunzmann D.,
OzingaW. A., Romermann C., Stadler M., Schlegelmilch J., Steendam H. J., Tackenberg O., Wilmann B.,
Cornelissen J. H. C., Eriksson O., Garnier E. & Peco B. (2008) The LEDA Traitbase: a database of life-history
traits of the Northwest European flora. – Journal of Ecology 96: 1266–1274.
Pierce S., Negreiros D., Cerabolini B. E. L., Kattge J., Díaz S., Kleyer M., Shipley B., Wright S. J.,
Soudzilovskaia N. A., Onipchenko V. G., van Bodegom P. M., Frenette-Dussault C., Weiher E., Pinho B. X.,
Cornelissen J. H. C., Grime J. P., Thompson K., Hunt R., Wilson P. J., Buffa G., Nyakunga O. C., Reich P. B.,
CaccianigaM., Mangili F., Ceriani R. M., Luzzaro A., Brusa G., Siefert A., Barbosa N. P. U., Chapin F. S.,
Cornwell W. K., Fang J., Fernandes G. W., Garnier E., Le Stradic S., Peńuelas J., Melo F. P. L., Slaviero A.,
Tabarelli M. & Tampucci D. (2017) A global method for calculating plant CSR ecological strategies
applied across biomes world-wide. – Functional Ecology 31: 444–457.
Tavşanoğlu Ç. & Pausas J. G. (2018) A functional trait database for Mediterranean Basin plants. – Scientific
Data 5: 180135.
Grime (1974, 1979) distinguished three basic ecological strategies of plants: (i) competitive strategy (C), advantageous in stable habitats where resources are abundant, conditions not extreme and the disturbance level low; (ii) stress-tolerant strategy (S), advantageous where resources are scarce, conditions severe and highly variable, but disturbance is uncommon; and (iii) ruderal strategy (R), advantageous where resources are abundant and conditions not extreme, but the disturbance frequency is high.
Taxa of the Czech flora were assigned to life strategies based on the method proposed by Pierce et al. (2017). The life strategies calculated using this method represent the trade-off in resource investment between three key leaf traits: leaf area (LA; high in competitive taxa), leaf dry matter content (LDMC; high in stress-tolerant taxa) and specific leaf area (SLA; high in ruderal taxa). Scores that express the degree of C-, S- and R-selection are calculated from these traits. These scores are expressed on a percentage scale, and the sum of the three scores for individual taxa is 100%. Based on these scores, the taxa are assigned to the basic primary strategies C, S and R, intermediate strategies CS, CR, SR and CSR, and transitions between them, e.g. C/CS or SR/CSR (sensu Grime 1979). The data on leaf traits for these calculations or calculated values were taken from the LEDA database (Kleyer et al. 2008) and some other sources (Bjorkman et al. 2018, Dayrell et al. 2018, Findurová 2018, Tavşanoğlu & Pausas 2018, Wang et al. 2018, Guo et al. 2019). The Pladias database contains both the score values for the three categories C, S, R and the categorized life strategies.
Guo W.-Y. & Pierce S. (2019) Life strategy. – www.pladias.cz.
Bjorkman A. D., Myers-Smith I. H., Elmendorf S. C. et al. (2018) Tundra Trait Team: A database of plant traits spanning the tundra biome. – Global Ecology and Biogeography 27: 1402–1411.
Dayrell R. L., Arruda A. J., Pierce S., Negreiros D., Meyer P. B., Lambers H. & Silveira F. A. (2018)
Ontogenetic shifts in plant ecological strategies. – Functional Ecology 32: 2730–2741.
Findurová A. (2018) Variabilita listových znaků SLA a LDMC vybraných druhů rostlin České republiky [Variability
of leaf traits SLA and LDMC in selected species of the Czech flora]. – Master thesis, Masaryk University, Brno.
Grime J. P. (1974) Vegetation classification by reference to strategies. – Nature 250: 26–31.
Grime J. P. (1979) Plant strategies and vegetation processes. – Wiley, Chichester.
Kleyer M., Bekker R. M., Knevel I. C., Bakker J. P., Thompson K., Sonnenschein M., Poschlod P., van
Groenendael J. M., Klimeš L., Klimešová J., Klotz S., Rusch G. M., Hermy M., Adriaens D., Boedeltje G.,
Bossuyt B., Dannemann A., Endels P., Götzenberger L., Hodgson J. G., Jackel A. K., Kühn I., Kunzmann D.,
OzingaW. A., Romermann C., Stadler M., Schlegelmilch J., Steendam H. J., Tackenberg O., Wilmann B.,
Cornelissen J. H. C., Eriksson O., Garnier E. & Peco B. (2008) The LEDA Traitbase: a database of life-history
traits of the Northwest European flora. – Journal of Ecology 96: 1266–1274.
Pierce S., Negreiros D., Cerabolini B. E. L., Kattge J., Díaz S., Kleyer M., Shipley B., Wright S. J.,
Soudzilovskaia N. A., Onipchenko V. G., van Bodegom P. M., Frenette-Dussault C., Weiher E., Pinho B. X.,
Cornelissen J. H. C., Grime J. P., Thompson K., Hunt R., Wilson P. J., Buffa G., Nyakunga O. C., Reich P. B.,
CaccianigaM., Mangili F., Ceriani R. M., Luzzaro A., Brusa G., Siefert A., Barbosa N. P. U., Chapin F. S.,
Cornwell W. K., Fang J., Fernandes G. W., Garnier E., Le Stradic S., Peńuelas J., Melo F. P. L., Slaviero A.,
Tabarelli M. & Tampucci D. (2017) A global method for calculating plant CSR ecological strategies
applied across biomes world-wide. – Functional Ecology 31: 444–457.
Tavşanoğlu Ç. & Pausas J. G. (2018) A functional trait database for Mediterranean Basin plants. – Scientific
Data 5: 180135.
Grime (1974, 1979) distinguished three basic ecological strategies of plants: (i) competitive strategy (C), advantageous in stable habitats where resources are abundant, conditions not extreme and the disturbance level low; (ii) stress-tolerant strategy (S), advantageous where resources are scarce, conditions severe and highly variable, but disturbance is uncommon; and (iii) ruderal strategy (R), advantageous where resources are abundant and conditions not extreme, but the disturbance frequency is high.
Taxa of the Czech flora were assigned to life strategies based on the method proposed by Pierce et al. (2017). The life strategies calculated using this method represent the trade-off in resource investment between three key leaf traits: leaf area (LA; high in competitive taxa), leaf dry matter content (LDMC; high in stress-tolerant taxa) and specific leaf area (SLA; high in ruderal taxa). Scores that express the degree of C-, S- and R-selection are calculated from these traits. These scores are expressed on a percentage scale, and the sum of the three scores for individual taxa is 100%. Based on these scores, the taxa are assigned to the basic primary strategies C, S and R, intermediate strategies CS, CR, SR and CSR, and transitions between them, e.g. C/CS or SR/CSR (sensu Grime 1979). The data on leaf traits for these calculations or calculated values were taken from the LEDA database (Kleyer et al. 2008) and some other sources (Bjorkman et al. 2018, Dayrell et al. 2018, Findurová 2018, Tavşanoğlu & Pausas 2018, Wang et al. 2018, Guo et al. 2019). The Pladias database contains both the score values for the three categories C, S, R and the categorized life strategies.
Guo W.-Y. & Pierce S. (2019) Life strategy. – www.pladias.cz.
Bjorkman A. D., Myers-Smith I. H., Elmendorf S. C. et al. (2018) Tundra Trait Team: A database of plant traits spanning the tundra biome. – Global Ecology and Biogeography 27: 1402–1411.
Dayrell R. L., Arruda A. J., Pierce S., Negreiros D., Meyer P. B., Lambers H. & Silveira F. A. (2018)
Ontogenetic shifts in plant ecological strategies. – Functional Ecology 32: 2730–2741.
Findurová A. (2018) Variabilita listových znaků SLA a LDMC vybraných druhů rostlin České republiky [Variability
of leaf traits SLA and LDMC in selected species of the Czech flora]. – Master thesis, Masaryk University, Brno.
Grime J. P. (1974) Vegetation classification by reference to strategies. – Nature 250: 26–31.
Grime J. P. (1979) Plant strategies and vegetation processes. – Wiley, Chichester.
Kleyer M., Bekker R. M., Knevel I. C., Bakker J. P., Thompson K., Sonnenschein M., Poschlod P., van
Groenendael J. M., Klimeš L., Klimešová J., Klotz S., Rusch G. M., Hermy M., Adriaens D., Boedeltje G.,
Bossuyt B., Dannemann A., Endels P., Götzenberger L., Hodgson J. G., Jackel A. K., Kühn I., Kunzmann D.,
OzingaW. A., Romermann C., Stadler M., Schlegelmilch J., Steendam H. J., Tackenberg O., Wilmann B.,
Cornelissen J. H. C., Eriksson O., Garnier E. & Peco B. (2008) The LEDA Traitbase: a database of life-history
traits of the Northwest European flora. – Journal of Ecology 96: 1266–1274.
Pierce S., Negreiros D., Cerabolini B. E. L., Kattge J., Díaz S., Kleyer M., Shipley B., Wright S. J.,
Soudzilovskaia N. A., Onipchenko V. G., van Bodegom P. M., Frenette-Dussault C., Weiher E., Pinho B. X.,
Cornelissen J. H. C., Grime J. P., Thompson K., Hunt R., Wilson P. J., Buffa G., Nyakunga O. C., Reich P. B.,
CaccianigaM., Mangili F., Ceriani R. M., Luzzaro A., Brusa G., Siefert A., Barbosa N. P. U., Chapin F. S.,
Cornwell W. K., Fang J., Fernandes G. W., Garnier E., Le Stradic S., Peńuelas J., Melo F. P. L., Slaviero A.,
Tabarelli M. & Tampucci D. (2017) A global method for calculating plant CSR ecological strategies
applied across biomes world-wide. – Functional Ecology 31: 444–457.
Tavşanoğlu Ç. & Pausas J. G. (2018) A functional trait database for Mediterranean Basin plants. – Scientific
Data 5: 180135.
Grime (1974, 1979) distinguished three basic ecological strategies of plants: (i) competitive strategy (C), advantageous in stable habitats where resources are abundant, conditions not extreme and the disturbance level low; (ii) stress-tolerant strategy (S), advantageous where resources are scarce, conditions severe and highly variable, but disturbance is uncommon; and (iii) ruderal strategy (R), advantageous where resources are abundant and conditions not extreme, but the disturbance frequency is high.
Taxa of the Czech flora were assigned to life strategies based on the method proposed by Pierce et al. (2017). The life strategies calculated using this method represent the trade-off in resource investment between three key leaf traits: leaf area (LA; high in competitive taxa), leaf dry matter content (LDMC; high in stress-tolerant taxa) and specific leaf area (SLA; high in ruderal taxa). Scores that express the degree of C-, S- and R-selection are calculated from these traits. These scores are expressed on a percentage scale, and the sum of the three scores for individual taxa is 100%. Based on these scores, the taxa are assigned to the basic primary strategies C, S and R, intermediate strategies CS, CR, SR and CSR, and transitions between them, e.g. C/CS or SR/CSR (sensu Grime 1979). The data on leaf traits for these calculations or calculated values were taken from the LEDA database (Kleyer et al. 2008) and some other sources (Bjorkman et al. 2018, Dayrell et al. 2018, Findurová 2018, Tavşanoğlu & Pausas 2018, Wang et al. 2018, Guo et al. 2019). The Pladias database contains both the score values for the three categories C, S, R and the categorized life strategies.
Guo W.-Y. & Pierce S. (2019) Life strategy. – www.pladias.cz.
Bjorkman A. D., Myers-Smith I. H., Elmendorf S. C. et al. (2018) Tundra Trait Team: A database of plant traits spanning the tundra biome. – Global Ecology and Biogeography 27: 1402–1411.
Dayrell R. L., Arruda A. J., Pierce S., Negreiros D., Meyer P. B., Lambers H. & Silveira F. A. (2018)
Ontogenetic shifts in plant ecological strategies. – Functional Ecology 32: 2730–2741.
Findurová A. (2018) Variabilita listových znaků SLA a LDMC vybraných druhů rostlin České republiky [Variability
of leaf traits SLA and LDMC in selected species of the Czech flora]. – Master thesis, Masaryk University, Brno.
Grime J. P. (1974) Vegetation classification by reference to strategies. – Nature 250: 26–31.
Grime J. P. (1979) Plant strategies and vegetation processes. – Wiley, Chichester.
Kleyer M., Bekker R. M., Knevel I. C., Bakker J. P., Thompson K., Sonnenschein M., Poschlod P., van
Groenendael J. M., Klimeš L., Klimešová J., Klotz S., Rusch G. M., Hermy M., Adriaens D., Boedeltje G.,
Bossuyt B., Dannemann A., Endels P., Götzenberger L., Hodgson J. G., Jackel A. K., Kühn I., Kunzmann D.,
OzingaW. A., Romermann C., Stadler M., Schlegelmilch J., Steendam H. J., Tackenberg O., Wilmann B.,
Cornelissen J. H. C., Eriksson O., Garnier E. & Peco B. (2008) The LEDA Traitbase: a database of life-history
traits of the Northwest European flora. – Journal of Ecology 96: 1266–1274.
Pierce S., Negreiros D., Cerabolini B. E. L., Kattge J., Díaz S., Kleyer M., Shipley B., Wright S. J.,
Soudzilovskaia N. A., Onipchenko V. G., van Bodegom P. M., Frenette-Dussault C., Weiher E., Pinho B. X.,
Cornelissen J. H. C., Grime J. P., Thompson K., Hunt R., Wilson P. J., Buffa G., Nyakunga O. C., Reich P. B.,
CaccianigaM., Mangili F., Ceriani R. M., Luzzaro A., Brusa G., Siefert A., Barbosa N. P. U., Chapin F. S.,
Cornwell W. K., Fang J., Fernandes G. W., Garnier E., Le Stradic S., Peńuelas J., Melo F. P. L., Slaviero A.,
Tabarelli M. & Tampucci D. (2017) A global method for calculating plant CSR ecological strategies
applied across biomes world-wide. – Functional Ecology 31: 444–457.
Tavşanoğlu Ç. & Pausas J. G. (2018) A functional trait database for Mediterranean Basin plants. – Scientific
Data 5: 180135.
Data on the presence of leaves on the plant, their metamorphoses and reductions are based on the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010) and the Key to the Flora of the Czech Republic (Kubát et al. 2002).
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky
[Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Kubát K., Hrouda L., Chrtek J. Jr., Kaplan Z., Kirschner J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2002) Klíč ke květeně České
republiky [Key to the flora of the Czech Republic]. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
Four basic types of leaf arrangement are distinguished: alternate, opposite, verticillate (whorled) and rosulate (in the basal rosette). The character is assessed in well-developed plants, i.e. not in individuals re-sprouting after damage by mowing or grazing or those with teratological modifications. More than one character state may occur (e.g. Hylotelephium jullianum and Salix purpurea) in some taxa: all character states are recorded in such cases.
In some plants, the arrangement of frondose bracts in the inflorescence is assessed separately (e.g. true leaves in Veronica persica and V. polita are opposite, while bracts are alternate). Leaves with interpetiolar stipules found in the Rubiaceae family are considered as whorled. The leaves in Rhamnus cathartica are considered as opposite, although in most cases they are sub-opposite.
The information was extracted mainly from the descriptions in the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010). In cases of uncertainties, mainly for alien taxa, additional sources were consulted, including the Flora of North America (Flora of North America Editorial Committee 1993), the Flora of China (Wu et al. 1994) and the Flora of Pakistan (www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan).
Grulich V., Holubová D., Štěpánková P. & Řezníčková M. (2017) Leaf arrangement. – www.pladias.cz.
Flora of North America Editorial Committee (eds) (1993) Flora of North America North of Mexico. – Oxford
University Press, New York.
Flora of Pakistan. – http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
Wu Z., Raven P. H. & Huang D. (eds) (1994) Flora of China. – Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical
Garden, St. Louis.
The primary distinction is made between simple and compound leaves. The simple leaves are categorized based on the leaf blade division associated with venation into palmately divided (e.g. Alchemilla), pinnately divided (e.g. Achillea millefolium), forked (e.g. Batrachium, Ceratophyllum and Utricularia) and pedate (e.g. Helleborus). The categorization is based on well-developed leaves. In many taxa, transitions occur between simple leaves with a dentate or serrate margin, and simple divided (pinnately or palmately lobed) leaves. Only the leaves with the lamina divided to at least one-quarter of their width are considered as divided. Many taxa with varying leaf division are assigned to more than one character state.
The compound leaves are divided into palmate and pinnate. The taxa that have both ternate and pinnate leaves, the latter with two pairs of leaflets (e.g. Aegopodium podagraria and some other species of the Apiaceae family), are assigned to both character states. The degree of division in pinnately compound leaves indicated here relates to well-developed leaves, especially to the basal part of the lamina. Taxa with multiple pinnately compound leaves are assigned to two or more character states based on the level of division, but very small leaves, which may correspond to simple leaves, are not considered.
In many cases, there are transitions between simple and compound leaves, especially between pinnatisect and pinnate leaves. Leaves with linear or filiform segments, including the bi-, tri- or even more-pinnatisect or palmatisect leaves (e.g. stem leaves in Batrachium fluitans, Cardamine pratensis and the genus Seseli) are classified as simple (dissected) leaves. In contrast, leaves with broader segments attached to the rachis by a distinct constriction or a petiolule (e.g. stem leaves in Cardamine dentata or ground leaves in Pimpinella saxifraga) are classified as compound.
In heterophyllous taxa, all types of leaves are assessed, and the taxon is assigned to two or more character states. However, less divided leaves found in juvenile plants of some taxa are not considered heterophyllous. The parasitic plants with rudimentary (vestigial) leaves (e.g. Cuscuta) or the plants with phylloclades replacing the vestigial leaves (e.g. Asparagus) are assigned the character state “reduced”.
The information was extracted mainly from the descriptions in the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010). In uncertain cases, mainly for alien taxa, additional sources were consulted, including the Flora of North America (Flora of North America Editorial Committee 1993), the Flora of China (Wu et al. 1994) and the Flora of Pakistan (www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan).
Grulich V., Holubová D., Štěpánková P. & Řezníčková M. (2017) Leaf shape. – www.pladias.cz.
Flora of North America Editorial Committee (eds) (1993) Flora of North America North of Mexico. – Oxford
University Press, New York.
Flora of Pakistan. – http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
Wu Z., Raven P. H. & Huang D. (eds) (1994) Flora of China. – Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical
Garden, St. Louis.
Stipules, i.e. paired leaflike appendages at the base of the petiole or sessile leaf blade, can be present or absent. Caducous stipules, i.e. those disappearing soon after the leaf blade has developed (e.g. Prunus), are considered as present. The interpetiolar stipules, morphologically indistinguishable from true leaves and together forming whorls (e.g. Rubiaceae), are considered as true stipules. In contrast, stipules modified into glands (e.g. Lotus) or hairs (e.g. Portulacaceae) are not considered as stipules here.
Information about the presence of stipules was extracted from the descriptions in the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010). In cases of uncertainties, mainly concerning alien taxa, descriptions in the Flora of North America (Flora of North America Editorial Committee 1993), the Flora of China (Wu et al. 1994) and the Flora of Pakistan (www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan) were consulted.
Grulich V., Holubová D., Štěpánková P. & Řezníčková M. (2017) Stipules. – www.pladias.cz.
Flora of North America Editorial Committee (eds) (1993) Flora of North America North of Mexico. – Oxford
University Press, New York.
Flora of Pakistan. – http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
Wu Z., Raven P. H. & Huang D. (eds) (1994) Flora of China. – Science Press, Beijing & Missouri Botanical
Garden, St. Louis.
Leaf petiole can be present or absent. In some plants, it can be present in some leaves but absent in others. The data were extracted from the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010), the Key to the Flora of the Czech Republic (Kubát et al. 2002), the New Hungarian Herbal (Király et al. 2011) and the Excursion Flora of Germany (Jäger & Werner 2000).
Prokešová H. & Grulich V. (2017) Petiole. – www.pladias.cz.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Jäger E. J. & Werner K. (eds) (2000) Rothmaler, Exkursionsflora von Deutschland. Band 3. Gefäßpflanzen: Atlasband. Ed. 10. – Spectrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg & Berlin.
Király G., Virók V. & Molnár V. (eds) (2011) Új Magyar füvészkönyv. Magyarország hajtásos növényei: ábrák [New Hungarian Herbal. The vascular plants of Hungary: Figures]. – Aggteleki Nemzeti Park Igazgatóság, Jósvafő.
Kubát K., Hrouda L., Chrtek J. Jr., Kaplan Z., Kirschner J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2002) Klíč ke květeně České republiky [Key to the flora of the Czech Republic]. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
Leaf life span is a functional trait important for plant competitiveness. It depends on the climate in the distribution range of the taxon and microclimate, nutrient and light availability in typical habitats of the taxon. The data were taken from the BiolFlor database (Klotz & Kühn 2002).
Categories
Klotz S. & Kühn I. (2002) Blattmerkmale. – In: Klotz S., Kühn I. & Durka W. (eds), BIOLFLOR: eine Datenbank mit biologisch-ökologischen Merkmalen zur Flora von Deutschland, Schriftenreihe für Vegetationskunde 38: 119–126.
Leaves of different woody plant species have distinct phenological patterns. Most species of Central European woody plants have winter-deciduous leaves, while a small proportion has evergreen (persistent-green) leaves. Semi-deciduous leaves are rare, occurring mainly in cultivated species. The category of winter semi-deciduous leaves includes only the leaves that are at least partly green in winter, not marcescent leaves, which die out in autumn and remain attached, in a dry state, to the maternal plant over the winter (e.g. young individuals of Quercus).
Data on leaf deciduousness were extracted from the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010), Key to the Flora of the Czech Republic (Kaplan et al. 2019), floras of some other countries, and complemented by original observations.
Štěpánková P. & Grulich V. (2020) Leaf deciduousness in woody plants. – www.pladias.cz
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Kaplan Z., Danihelka J., Chrtek J. Jr., Kirschner J., Kubát K., Štěpánek J. & Štech M. (eds) (2019) Klíč ke květeně České republiky [Key to the flora of the Czech Republic]. Ed. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
Leaf anatomy is an important ecological adaptation which helps plants to optimize photosynthesis under various environmental conditions. It reflects especially the availability of water (Klotz & Kühn 2002). Succulent and scleromorphic leaves are adapted to dry conditions. Both of them have thickened epidermis and cuticle, but the former develop a water-storage tissue while the latter have mechanisms to promote water transport in periods of water availability. Mesomorphic leaves are adapted to less dry conditions; hygromorphic leaves to shady conditions that rarely suffer from drought; helomorphic leaves to oxygen deficiency in swampy soils; and hydromorphic leaves to gas exchange in the water. The most common type in the Czech flora is mesomorphic leaves. The data were taken from the BiolFlor database (Klotz & Kühn 2002), which contains an extended and corrected version of the dataset published by Ellenberg (1979).
Klotz S. & Kühn I. (2002) Blattmerkmale. – In: Klotz S., Kühn I. & Durka W. (eds), BIOLFLOR: eine Datenbank mit biologisch-ökologischen Merkmalen zur Flora von Deutschland, Schriftenreihe für Vegetationskunde 38: 119–126.
Ellenberg H. (1979) Zeigerwerte der Gefäßpflanzen Mitteleuropas. Ed. 2. – Scripta Geobotanica 9: 1–122.
Functional leaf types in woody plants, often used for physiognomic classification of forest and scrub vegetation, are distinguished based on their morphology, anatomy and life span. Most angiosperm woody plants of the central-European flora have broad deciduous or semi-deciduous leaves, which have a large specific leaf area. The other leaf types are, with rare exceptions (Larix), perennial and usually called evergreen. Needle-like and scale-like leaves occur in conifers and some species of Ericaceae. Sclerophyllous leaves are flat but have a strongly developed sclerenchyma, which causes their toughness. They are usually small coriaceous leaves with small specific leaf area, adapted to dry climate. Laurophyllous leaves are larger and thinner than sclerophyllous leaves and have a smaller amount of sclerenchyma. In most cases, they are dark green, smooth and shiny. These leaves are adapted to year-round wet climates with mild winters. A few species that are difficult to assign to these categories are classified as “special type”.
The data on functional leaf types were taken from the Flora of the Czech Republic (vols. 1–8; Hejný et al. 1988–1992, Slavík et al. 1997–2004, Štěpánková et al. 2010), Key to the Flora of the Czech Republic (Kaplan et al. 2019), floras of some other countries, and complemented by original observations.
Štěpánková P. & Grulich V. (2020) Functional leaf type in woody plants. – www.pladias.cz.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Kaplan Z., Danihelka J., Chrtek J. Jr., Kirschner J., Kubát K., Štěpánek J. & Štech M. (eds) (2019) Klíč ke květeně České republiky [Key to the flora of the Czech Republic]. Ed. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
The months of the beginning and end of flowering in the Czech Republic are given. The data were taken from the Key to the Flora of the Czech Republic (Kaplan et al. 2019).
Kaplan Z., Danihelka J., Chrtek J. Jr., Kirschner J., Kubát K., Štěpánek J. & Štech M. (eds) (2019) Klíč ke květeně České republiky [Key to the flora of the Czech Republic]. Ed. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Dicliny characterizes the level of spatial separation of male and female reproductive organs. Monoclinous (synoecious) plants, including most taxa of the central-European flora, have only bisexual (hermaphroditic) flowers. The plants with unisexual flowers are either monoecious (with both male and female flowers growing on the same individual) or dioecious (with male and female flowers growing on different individuals). Gynomonoecious plants have female and bisexual flowers on the same individuals, while andromonoecious plants have male and bisexual flowers on the same individuals. Gynodioecious plants have female and bisexual flowers on different individuals, or some individuals have only female flowers, and other individuals have both male and female flowers. Androdioecious plants have male and bisexual flowers on different individuals, or some individuals have only male flowers, and other individuals have both male and female flowers. Trioecious plants have individuals with male flowers, individuals with female flowers, and individuals with bisexual (or both male and female unisexual) flowers. Trimonoecious plants have a male, female and bisexual flowers on the same individual. Other plants can be male sterile. The data on dicliny were taken from the BiolFlor database (Durka 2002).
Durka W. (2002) Blüten- und Reproduktionsbiologie. – In: Klotz S., Kühn I. & Durka W. (eds), BIOLFLOR – Eine Datenbank mit biologisch-ökologischen Merkmalen zur Flora von Deutschland, Schriftenreihe für Vegetationskunde 38: 133–175.
The type of generative reproduction (breeding system) is defined by the origin of gametes that fuse to form offspring. On the one hand, it includes obligate outcrossing, which can be controlled by genetic mechanisms of recognition and rejection of self-pollen before the fertilization of the egg cell (allogamy, self-incompatibility), sequential hermaphroditism (dichogamy) or unisexuality of plant individuals (dioecy). On the other hand, it includes obligate autogamy, which refers to the fusion of two gametes that both originate from one flower or one individual. However, various mixed strategies are common, including reproduction by both self-fertilization and mating with other individuals. The degree of self-fertilization can be affected by both genetic and ecological factors, among others by frequency, diversity and foraging strategy of pollinators. Three categories are distinguished: (i) facultative allogamy (outcrossing prevails, but selfing is possible), (ii) facultative autogamy (mainly selfing, outcrossing is rare) and (iii) mixed mating, in which both outcrossing and selfing are common, sometimes with different frequencies among populations. The last main category, apomixis, includes seed production without fertilization. It can be either obligate (offspring is genetically identical with the maternal plant) or facultative (accompanied by residual sexuality, as a rule with a low frequency). Hybrid plants are often sterile, but can sometimes reproduce vegetatively and persist for a long time. In some cases (e.g. Pilosella), such sterile hybrids are considered as species and included in this list. Some morphologically well-defined and widely accepted taxa consist of populations with contrasting modes of reproduction (as a rule connected with ploidy levels). For example, some populations are sexual and allogamous while others are apomictic. Data on generative reproduction types of the taxa of Czech flora were obtained through a search of the available literature.
Chrtek J. Jr. (2018) Generative reproduction type. – www.pladias.cz.
Pollen is transferred to stigma by different vectors, including abiotic vectors such as wind (anemophily) or water (hydrophily), or biotic vectors such as insects (entomophily). An alternative mechanism is selfing (autogamy), which can include special mechanisms such as cleistogamy (selfing in rudimentary, obligatorily autogamous flowers), pseudocleistogamy (selfing in flowers that do not open due to adverse environmental conditions) or geitonogamy (selfing by pollen from a neighbouring flower of the same plant except the cases of pollen transfer by a vector). Pollination syndromes are adopted from the BiolFlor database (Durka 2002).
Durka W. (2002) Blüten- und Reproduktionsbiologie. – In: Klotz S., Kühn I. & Durka W. (eds), BIOLFLOR – Eine Datenbank mit biologisch-ökologischen Merkmalen zur Flora von Deutschland, Schriftenreihe für Vegetationskunde 38: 133–175.
Reproduction is the production of offspring that are physically separated from the parental plant. Plants reproduce either by seed (or spores) or vegetatively, while the combination of these two types of reproduction in the same taxon is common. Asexual seed production (apomixis) is not considered as vegetative reproduction. The data were taken from the BiolFlor database (Durka 2002).
Durka W. (2002) Blüten- und Reproduktionsbiologie. – In: Klotz S., Kühn I. & Durka W. (eds), BIOLFLOR – Eine Datenbank mit biologisch-ökologischen Merkmalen zur Flora von Deutschland, Schriftenreihe für Vegetationskunde 38: 133–175.
Diaspore, also called dispersule or propagule, is a generative or vegetative part of the plant body that is dispersed from the parental plant and can produce a new individual. Generative diaspores include spores, seeds and fruits or similar dispersal units (e.g. aggregate fruits in Fragaria, multiple fruits in Morus, gymnosperm cones, epimatium-bearing seed in Taxus, spikelets or their various fragments in Poaceae). If the seed is released from dehiscent fruit or decaying ripe fleshy fruit, both seed and fruit can be considered as diaspores. In plants with indehiscent fruits, only the fruit is considered as a diaspore. A specific category of generative diaspore is tumbleweeds, i.e. mature plant parts including stem branches and large inflorescence (e.g. Crambe tataria and Falcaria vulgaris).
Vegetative diaspores are viable and movable parts of plants that originate above ground or in water and disconnect from the parent plant before sprouting. We did not consider as vegetative diaspores clonal organs connected with the maternal plant until the new plant becomes independent (e.g. stolons in Fragaria) and various types of below-ground organs or shoot bases embedded in soil (e.g. tubers of Helianthus tuberosus or grass tillers). Vegetative diaspores include (i) turions (e.g. Myriophyllum and Utricularia) and similar overwintering structures (detachable buds in Elodea and Groenlandia and shortened shoots of some pondweeds produced by rhizome or stolon, e.g. Potamogeton alpinus); (ii) bulbils and tubers of stem origin (e.g. Allium oleraceum and Dentaria bulbifera) or root origin (Ficaria only); (iii) plantlets born by pseudovivipary (e.g. Poa alpina); (iv) plantlets born from buds on leaves (e.g. Cardamine pratensis); (v) plantlets born on free ends of stolons, detachable before establishing (e.g. Hydrocharis and Jovibarba); (vi) unspecialized fragments of the shoot (e.g. Sedum album and many aquatic plants), shoot tips (e.g. Ceratophyllum demersum) or detachable offsprings born from axillary buds (e.g. Agrostis canina, Arabidopsis halleri and Rorippa amphibia); (vii) budding plants (Lemnaceae only); and (viii) gemmae produced by gametophytes (Trichomanes speciosum only).
Sádlo J., Chytrý M., Pergl J. & Pyšek P. (2018) Plant dispersal strategies: a new classification based on themultiple dispersal modes of individual species. – Preslia 90: 1–22.
Plants use different dispersal modes, also called dispersal syndromes, depending on different dispersal vectors. For example, anemochory is the dispersal by wind, hydrochory by water, epizoochory by attachment to an animal body and endozoochory by animals via ingestion. However, single plant species usually use a combination of several dispersal modes rather than a single mode. Distinct combinations of dispersal modes repeatedly occurring in different plant taxa are called dispersal strategies. Sádlo et al. (2018) distinguished nine dispersal strategies named for the genus names of typical representatives. Taxa of the Czech flora are assigned to individual strategies based on this source.
Categories
Sádlo J., Chytrý M., Pergl J. & Pyšek P. (2018) Plant dispersal strategies: a new classification based on themultiple dispersal modes of individual species. – Preslia 90: 1–22.
Myrmecochorous plants, i.e. taxa dispersed by ants, possess an elaiosome, a nutrient-rich fleshy appendage of seed or fruit. However, in many taxa, the morphological indication or direct evidence of myrmecochory is equivocal. Removal experiments (seeds with and without elaiosome offered to ants) or chemical analysis (different nutrient content between seed and elaiosome; Konečná et al. 2018) would be needed to decide whether the appendage is elaiosome or not. Therefore, more categories than a simple binary distinction between myrmecochorous and non-myrmecochorous are recognized here:
Plant taxa that are often carried by ants to the nest although having no elaiosome (e.g. cheaters in this plant-ant mutualism or plant parts used as a building material for ant hills) are classified as non-myrmecochorous.
The data are based on the literature search and examination of seed samples of the taxa that are reported as myrmecochorous and their closely related congenerics. The list of these taxa with seed images is available at http://botanika.prf.jcu.cz/myrmekochorie/. These taxa were selected from the families represented in the Czech flora that contain at least one taxon reported as myrmecochorous in the literature (Sernander 1906, Hejný et al. 1988 onwards, Fitter & Peat 1994, Klotz et al. 2002, Grime et al. 2007, Kleyer et al. 2008, Servigne 2008, Lengyel et al. 2010, Študent 2012). Such taxa were found in 37 families including Amaryllidaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Aristolochiaceae, Asparagaceae, Asteraceae, Boraginaceae, Campanulaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Celastraceae, Colchicaceae, Crassulaceae, Cyperaceae, Dipsacaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Iridaceae, Juncaceae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae, Linaceae, Montiaceae, Orobanchaceae, Oxalidaceae, Papaveraceae, Plantaginaceae, Poaceae, Polygalaceae, Polygonaceae, Portulacaceae, Primulaceae, Ranunculaceae, Resedaceae, Rosaceae, Santalaceae, Urticaceae and Violaceae. All the taxa not belonging to these families were classified as non-myrmecochorous (b).
For each of the five categories, a subcategory nv (= non vidimus, i.e. not seen) is used in the taxa for which we found neither information in the literature nor a photograph of a seed, and failed to collect seeds from living plants, but the assignment to the category is likely based on the traits of closely related taxa. For example, we have no data for Centaurea bruguiereana but we classify it as myrmecochorous nv, because all the taxa of Centaurea for which we have data possess an elaiosome.
Konečná M., Štech M. & Lepš J. (2018) Myrmecochory. – www.pladias.cz.
Fitter A. H. & Peat H. J. (1994) The Ecological Flora Database. – Journal of Ecology 82: 415–425.
Grime J. P., Hodgson J. G. & Hunt R. (eds) (2007) Comparative plant ecology: a functional approach to common British species. 2nd edition. – Castlepoint Press, Colvend, Dalbeattie.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Kleyer M., Bekker R. M., Knevel I. C., Bakker J. P., Thompson K., Sonnenschein M., Poschlod P., van Groenendael J. M., Klimeš L., Klimešová J., Klotz S., Rusch G. M., Hermy M., Adriaens D., Boedeltje G., Bossuyt B., Dannemann A., Endels P., Götzenberger L., Hodgson J. G., Jackel A. K., Kühn I., Kunzmann D., Ozinga W. A., Romermann C., Stadler M., Schlegelmilch J., Steendam H. J., Tackenberg O., Wilmann B., Cornelissen J. H. C., Eriksson O., Garnier E. & Peco B. (2008) The LEDA Traitbase: a database of life-history traits of the Northwest European flora. – Journal of Ecology 96: 1266–1274.
Klotz S., Kühn I. & Durka W. (eds) (2002) BIOLFLOR: eine Datenbank mit biologisch-ökologischen Merkmalen zur Flora von Deutschland. – Schriftenreihe für Vegetationskunde 38: 1–334.
Konečná M., Moos M., Zahradníčková H., Šimek P. & Lepš J. (2018) Tasty rewards for ants: differences in elaiosome and seed metabolite profiles are consistent across species and reflect taxonomic relatedness. – Oecologia 188: 753–764.
Sernander R. (1906) Entwurf einer Monographie der europäischen Myrmekochoren. – Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar 41: 1–410.
Servigne P. (2008) Etude expérimentale et comparative de la myrmécochorie: le cas des fourmis dispersatrices Lasius niger et Myrmica rubra. – PhD thesis, Université libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
Študent V. (2012) Společné funkční vlastnosti myrmekochorních druhů rostlin České republiky a sezónní a denní dynamika odnosu diaspor všivce lesního (Pedicularis sylvatica) mravenci [Traits of myrmecochorous plants of the Czech Republic and a seasonal and daily seed’s removal dynamics of lousewort (Pedicularis sylvatica) by ants]. – Master thesis, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice.
Bud bank denotes all inactive (dormant) buds on the plant body that can give rise to new shoots, including both shoot buds and root buds (Klimešová & Klimeš 2007). The most important part of the bud bank is located at the soil surface or belowground, out of the reach of disturbance or seasonal frost or drought (Raunkiaer 1934). Consequently, only data on buds located at the soil surface or in the soil are reported here.
The number of buds on plant organs located at different soil depths was assessed according to morphological characters (Klimešová & Klimeš 2007). The assessment was based on the assumption that each leaf (or leaf scale) axil contains a bud. Assessment of bud numbers in individual plants was done in three categories (0, 0–10, > 10 buds per shoot; Klimešová & Klimeš 2006). These categories were respectively represented by values of 0, 5, 15 buds per shoot. The value for the taxon was calculated as the mean of these values across the individuals of this taxon and particular soil depth as reported in the CLO-PLA 3.4 database (Klimešová et al. 2017). The size of the belowground bud bank was determined as the sum of bud numbers per shoot summed over the soil profile. The depth of the belowground bud bank was determined as the average depth of the buds in the soil. In addition to stem-derived buds, around 10% of taxa in the Czech flora possess the ability to form adventitious buds on the root or hypocotyl (here collectively called root buds). As root buds cannot be counted (they are formed freely along the root), 15 buds were arbitrarily added per each 10 cm of depth for categories that include root buds. All the bud-bank characteristics are given for stem-derived buds only (root buds excluded) and all the buds (root buds included):
Klimešová J., Danihelka J., Chrtek J., de Bello F. & Herben T. (2017) CLO-PLA: a database of clonal and budbank
traits of the Central European flora. – Ecology 98: 1179.
Klimešová J. & Klimeš L. (2006) CLO-PLA3: a database of clonal growth architecture of Central-European
plants. – http://clopla.butbn.cas.cz.
Klimešová J. & Klimeš L. (2007) Bud banks and their role in vegetative regeneration: a literature review and proposal for simple classification and assessment. – Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8: 115–129.
Raunkiaer C. (1934) The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. – Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Plant parasitism is based on either of two mechanisms. The first group of parasitic plants involves those parasitizing directly on another plant. These plants are called haustorial parasites. They take resources from the host’s vascular bundles using a specialized organ, the haustorium. The second group comprises mycoheterotrophic plants, which parasitize fungi via mycorrhizal interaction and gain organic carbon from them.
Plants in both groups display variable dependence on their host organism. The haustorial parasites include two distinct functional groups: green hemiparasites and holoparasites. Green hemiparasites are partial parasites that retain photosynthetic ability but obtain all mineral resources and a part of the organic carbon from the host. Holoparasites are non-green full parasites unable to photosynthesize. Location of the haustorial attachment to the host (root or stem) is another essential functional trait. The distinction between partial and full parasitism in haustorial parasites may not be straightforward. In the Czech flora, it is nevertheless possible to distinguish between stem hemi- and holoparasites, which are difficult to separate on the global scale (Těšitel 2016). Consequently, we use a traditional classification here and classify as holoparasites those plants that are in adulthood mostly without chlorophyll, even though some of them might have some chlorophyll and perform residual photosynthesis (e.g. Cuscuta).
In mycoheterotrophic plants, there is a continuum from initial mycoheterotrophs through partial mycoheterotrophs to full mycoheterotrophs. In the initial mycoheterotrophs, only initial stages, i.e. gametophytes or seedlings, are dependent on the fungus, whereas adult plants are autotrophic, while still depending on mycorrhizal symbiosis as a source of water and mineral nutrients. In the partial mycoheterotrophs, photosynthesizing adults obtain from their mycorrhizal fungi not only water and mineral nutrients but also different amounts of organic carbon. The full mycoheterotrophs lost their chlorophyll and are thus fully parasitic. In some partial mycoheterotrophs (e.g. the genus Cephalanthera), chlorotic individuals can be found, which lack chlorophyll and fully depend on their hosts.
Classification of haustorial parasites follows Těšitel (2016) with a further distinction of stem hemi- and holoparasites, and identification of mycoheterotrophs follows Merckx (2012).
Těšitel J., Těšitelová T., Blažek P. & Lepš J. (2016) Parasitism and mycoheterotrophy. – www.pladias.cz.
Těšitel J. (2016) Functional biology of parasitic plants: a review. – Plant Ecology and Evolution 149: 5–20.
Merckx V. S. F. T. (2012) Mycoheterotrophy: the biology of plants living on fungi. – Springer, Berlin.
Carnivorous plants attract, trap and kill their prey, animals (mainly insects and small crustaceans) and protozoans, and subsequently absorb the nutrients from their dead bodies.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds) (1988) Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic]. Vol. 1. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Hrouda L. & Skalický V. (eds) (1990) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 2. – Academia, Praha.
Hejný S., Slavík B., Kirschner J. & Křísa B. (eds) (1992) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 3. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Štěpánková J. (eds) (2000) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 6. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Chrtek J. jun. & Tomšovic P. (eds) (1997) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 5. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Smejkal M., Dvořáková M. & Grulich V. (eds) (1995) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 4. – Academia, Praha.
Slavík B., Štěpánková J. & Štěpánek J. (eds) (2004) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 7. – Academia, Praha.
Štěpánková J., Chrtek J. jun. & Kaplan Z. (eds) (2010) Květena České republiky [Flora of the Czech Republic]. Vol. 8. – Academia, Praha.
Plants are classified into those without symbiotic nitrogen fixers and those that form a symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The latter are further divided into those forming a symbiosis with rhizobia (e.g. Allorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Rhizobium and Sinorhizobium) and those forming the actinorhizal symbiosis with the genus Frankia, the latter called actinorhizal plants (Bond 1983, Pawlowski & Sprent 2007, Sprent 2008, Benson 2016).
In the Czech flora, the rhizobial group is represented by virtually all legumes (family Fabaceae). Exceptions are three non-native cultivated woody species (Cercis siliquastrum, Gleditsia triacanthos, Gymnocladus dioicus) that do not nodulate (Tedersoo et al. 2018), which is generally considered as evidence for the absence of symbiosis. However, some studies suggest that functional nitrogen-fixing symbiosis may exist even without visible nodules (Bryan et al. 1996). Roots of Gleditsia triacanthos were recorded to contain bacterial structures similar to those in nodules with rhizobia, as well as the presence of nitrogenase (Faria et al. 2002). These genera also contain genes probably related to nodule formation, although their exact function is unclear (Graves et al. 1999). Because convincing evidence of nitrogen fixation in these species is missing, we consider them non-nitrogen-fixing for the time being.
Symbiosis with rhizobia was found in several other families (Tedersoo et al. 2018). Of these, the Czech flora includes only casually introduced Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), in which a parallel infection with cyanobacteria was described (Sabet 1946, Mahmood & Athar 1998).
The actinorhizal group is represented in the Czech flora mainly by alder species (Alnus spp.) and also by cultivated species in the family Elaeagnaceae – Elaeagnus spp. and Hippophaë rhamnoides (Bond 1983, Benson 2016).
Blažek P. & Lepš J. (2016) Symbiotic nitrogen fixation. – www.pladias.cz.
Benson D. R. (2016) Frankia & actinorhizal plants. – https://frankia.mcb.uconn.edu/ (accessed on 1 Feb 2021).
Bond G. (1983) Taxonomy and distribution of non-legume nitrogen-fixing systems. – In: Gordon J. C. & Wheeler C. T. (eds), Biological nitrogen fixation in forests: foundations and applications, p. 55–87, Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W. Junk Publ., The Hague.
Bryan J. A., Berlyn G. P. & Gordon J. C. (1996) Toward a new concept of the evolution of symbiotic nitrogen fixation in the Leguminosae. – Plant and Soil 186: 151–159.
de Faria S. M., Olivares F. L. & Xavier R. P. (2002) Nodule-structure in the roots of Gleditsia spp. a non-nodulating legume genus. – In: Pedrosa F. O., Hungria M., Yates G. & Newton W. E. (eds), Nitrogen fixation: from molecules to crop productivity. Current plant science and biotechnology in agriculture, vol 38. Springer, Dordrecht, p. 337.
Graves W. R., Foster C. M., Rosin F. M. & Schrader J. A. (1999) Two early nodulation genes are not markers for the capacity of leguminous nursery crops to form root nodules. – Journal of Environmental Horticulture 17: 126–129.
Mahmood A. & Athar M. (1998) Cyanobacterial root nodules in Tribulus terrestris L. (Zygophyllaceae). – In: Malik K. A. & Sajjad Mirza M. & Ladha J. K. (eds), Nitrogen fixation with non-legumes, Springer, Dordrecht, p. 345–350.
Pawlowski K. & Sprent J. I. (2007) Comparison between actinorhizal and legume symbioses. – In: Pawlowski K. & Newton W. E. (eds), Nitrogen-fixing actinorhizal symbioses, Springer, Dordrecht, p. 261–288.
Sabet Y. S. (1946) Bacterial root nodules in the Zygophyllaceae. – Nature 157: 656–657.
Sprent J. I. (2008) Evolution and diversity of legume symbiosis. – In: Dilworth M. J., James E. K., Sprent J. I. & Newton W. E. (eds), Nitrogen-fixing leguminous symbioses, Springer, Dordrecht, p. 1–21.
Tedersoo L., Laanisto L., Rahimlou S., Toussaint A., Hallikma T. & Pärtel M. (2018) Global database of plants with root-symbiotic nitrogen fixation: NodDB. – Journal of Vegetation Science 29: 560–568.
Taxa are classified according to whether they are native or alien to the Czech Republic. Following the definitions used in invasion ecology, native taxa are those that have evolved in the area of the Czech Republic or immigrated there without human assistance from the area where they had evolved. Alien taxa are those whose presence is a result of intentional or unintentional introduction by human activity and can be divided based on their residence time. The alien taxa are divided based on their residence time into archaeophytes and neophytes. Archaeophytes are taxa occurring in the wild that were introduced between the beginning of Neolithic agriculture and the year 1500, i.e. the beginning of intercontinental overseas trade after the discovery of the Americas. Neophytes are taxa occurring in the wild that were introduced after 1500 (see Richardson et al. 2000 for detailed definitions). Some taxa introduced in the Late Middle Ages or Early Modern Period, but with no exact information on the introduction date, were assigned to a joint category of Archaeophyte/neophyte. Additionally, some frequently cultivated taxa that are not known to have escaped from cultivation are listed as a separate category Cultivated. Category Lack of evidence of occurrence in the wild includes taxa for which spontaneous occurrence in the wild is doubtful. Taxa assigned to the category Absent in Czechia are not sufficiently supported by reliable records or occurred just once and disappeared.
The data included in the database follow the third edition of the Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (Pyšek et al. 2022 and references related to individual taxa therein).
Pyšek P., Sádlo J., Chrtek J. Jr., Chytrý M., Kaplan Z., Pergl J., Pokorná A., Axmanová I., Čuda J., Doležal J., Dřevojan P., Hejda M., Kočár P., Kortz A., Lososová Z., Lustyk P., Skálová H., Štajerová K., Večeřa M., Vítková M., Wild J. & Danihelka J. (2022) Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (3rd edition): species richness, status, distributions, habitats, regional invasion levels, introduction pathways and impacts. – Preslia 94: 447–577.
Richardson D. M., Pyšek P., Rejmánek M., Barbour M. G., Panetta F. D. & West C. J. (2000) Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. – Diversity and Distributions 6: 93–107.
Invasion status is a classification of alien taxa into three categories reflecting their position in the invasion process. Alien taxa that only occasionally reproduce in the wild in the Czech Republic, do not form self-replacing populations, and rely on repeated introductions for their persistence are termed casual. Naturalized taxa are alien plants that reproduce in the wild and sustain populations over many life cycles without direct intervention by humans (or despite human intervention). Invasive plants are naturalized plants that produce reproductive offspring, often in large numbers, at considerable distances from parent plants and thus have the potential to spread over an extensive area (Richardson et al. 2000, 2011). This classification does not apply to native taxa, which are reported as separate categories. The data were taken from the third edition of the Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (Pyšek et al. 2022 and references related to individual taxa therein).
Pyšek P., Sádlo J., Chrtek J. Jr., Chytrý M., Kaplan Z., Pergl J., Pokorná A., Axmanová I., Čuda J., Doležal J., Dřevojan P., Hejda M., Kočár P., Kortz A., Lososová Z., Lustyk P., Skálová H., Štajerová K., Večeřa M., Vítková M., Wild J. & Danihelka J. (2022) Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (3rd edition): species richness, status, distributions, habitats, regional invasion levels, introduction pathways and impacts. – Preslia 94: 447–577.
Richardson D. M., Pyšek P. & Carlton J. T. (2011) A compendium of essential concepts and terminology in biological invasions. – In: Richardson D. M. (ed.), Fifty years of invasion ecology: the legacy of Charles Elton, p. 409–420, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
Richardson D. M., Pyšek P., Rejmánek M., Barbour M. G., Panetta F. D. & West C. J. (2000) Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. – Diversity and Distributions 6: 93–107.
This information is given for alien taxa only. These taxa are classified according to their geographic origin (native range) at the level of continents; those with a native range encompassing more than one continent are assigned to two or more categories. Origin in Europe refers to the non-Mediterranean parts of this continent other than the Czech Republic. The Mediterranean region comprises parts of southern Europe, northern Africa and western Asia from Turkey and Israel to Afghanistan, which are characterized by the Mediterranean-type climate and the occurrence of sclerophyllous evergreen vegetation. Conversely, records of origin in Africa, Asia and Europe do not relate to the Mediterranean part of these continents. Hybrids and species that originated through recent hybridization are listed as a separate category. Anecophytes are taxa for which native range is unknown or highly uncertain. The data were taken from the third edition of the Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (Pyšek et al. 2022 and references related to individual taxa therein).
Pyšek P., Sádlo J., Chrtek J. Jr., Chytrý M., Kaplan Z., Pergl J., Pokorná A., Axmanová I., Čuda J., Doležal J., Dřevojan P., Hejda M., Kočár P., Kortz A., Lososová Z., Lustyk P., Skálová H., Štajerová K., Večeřa M., Vítková M., Wild J. & Danihelka J. (2022) Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (3rd edition): species richness, status, distributions, habitats, regional invasion levels, introduction pathways and impacts. – Preslia 94: 447–577.
The year of the first reported occurrence in the wild in the Czech Republic is given for neophytes. Data were extracted from the third edition of the Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (Pyšek et al. 2022); however, for many species, this information is not available.
Pyšek P., Sádlo J., Chrtek J. Jr., Chytrý M., Kaplan Z., Pergl J., Pokorná A., Axmanová I., Čuda J., Doležal J., Dřevojan P., Hejda M., Kočár P., Kortz A., Lososová Z., Lustyk P., Skálová H., Štajerová K., Večeřa M., Vítková M., Wild J. & Danihelka J. (2022) Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (3rd edition): species richness, status, distributions, habitats, regional invasion levels, introduction pathways and impacts. – Preslia 94: 447–577.
Period of introduction is divided into categories from the Neolithic to the present time. The assessment is based on archaeobotanical and also floristic data where applicable. For taxa without precise dating, only merged categories of longer time periods are provided.
Data were extracted from the third edition of the Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (Pyšek et al. 2022).
Pyšek P., Sádlo J., Chrtek J. Jr., Chytrý M., Kaplan Z., Pergl J., Pokorná A., Axmanová I., Čuda J., Doležal J., Dřevojan P., Hejda M., Kočár P., Kortz A., Lososová Z., Lustyk P., Skálová H., Štajerová K., Večeřa M., Vítková M., Wild J. & Danihelka J. (2022) Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (3rd edition): species richness, status, distributions, habitats, regional invasion levels, introduction pathways and impacts. – Preslia 94: 447–577.
This information is available for alien taxa only. Taxa are classified according to the mode of introduction, with the distinction made between an intentional (deliberate) and unintentional (accidental) pathway (Hulme et al. 2008). A taxon can be assigned to more than one introduction pathway. The pathway classification and data for individual taxa follow the third edition of the Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (Pyšek et al. 2022).
The classification includes the following introduction pathways:
Intentional introduction: 1 ornamental – cultivation for ornamental purposes in a garden or public green space; 2 collection – cultivation for scientific or collection purposes in a garden or park; 3 nature – ornamental planting in natural habitats, including deceptive enrichment of regional flora or inclusion of alien plants in seed mixtures sold as “wild meadows”; 4 crops – cultivation of crops such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, spices; 5 forest – forestry and wildlife management, e.g. planting trees in forestry plantations or cultivation of crops in forests as a fodder for game; 6 landscaping, e.g. afforestation, land reclamation, roadside tree belts, tree alleys; 7 other – cultivation for other purposes, e.g. forage crops, plants for basketry, beekeeping and pharmacy.
Unintentional introduction: 8 agriculture – introduction associated with agriculture: weeds in fields (e.g. cereals, flax), vegetable beds and vineyards; 9 plantation – introduction associated with fodder crop cultivation, sowing meadows and planting forest trees; 10 horticulture – introduction associated with the horticultural sale of ornamental plants, i.e. weeds of ornamental gardens; 11 traffic – dispersal by vehicles, trains, shipping, urban tourism; 12 industry – dispersal through mining or production/distribution of commodities, e.g. ores, wool; 13 humans – other unintended vectors associated with anthropogenic habitats; 14 nature – other unintended vectors associated with natural habitats, e.g. dispersal by wind, water, animals.
Pyšek P., Sádlo J., Chrtek J. Jr., Chytrý M., Kaplan Z., Pergl J., Pokorná A., Axmanová I., Čuda J., Doležal J., Dřevojan P., Hejda M., Kočár P., Kortz A., Lososová Z., Lustyk P., Skálová H., Štajerová K., Večeřa M., Vítková M., Wild J. & Danihelka J. (2022) Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic (3rd edition): species richness, status, distributions, habitats, regional invasion levels, introduction pathways and impacts. – Preslia 94: 447–577.
Hulme P. E., Bacher S., Kenis M., Klotz S., Kühn I., Minchin D., Nentwig W., Olenin S., Panov V., Pergl J., Pyšek P., Roques A., Sol D., Solarz W. & Vilà M. (2008) Grasping at the routes of biological invasions: a framework for integrating pathways into policy. – Journal of Applied Ecology 45: 403–414.
Indicator value for light is expressed on an ordinal scale from 1 to 9 defined by Ellenberg et al. (1991). The values for individual taxa have been modified and extended for the Czech flora by Chytrý et al. (2018). Values with “x” indicate generalists, i.e. taxa with broad ecological range with respect to light. Indicator values for trees relate to juvenile individuals in herb and shrub layer.
Chytrý M., Tichý L., Dřevojan P., Sádlo J. & Zelený D. (2018) Ellenberg-type indicator values for the Czech flora. – Preslia 90: 83–103.
Ellenberg H., Weber H. E., Düll R., Wirth V., Werner W. & Paulißen D. (1991) Zeigerwerte von Pflanzen in Mitteleuropa. – Scripta Geobotanica 18: 1–248.
Indicator value for temperature is expressed on an ordinal scale from 1 to 9 defined by Ellenberg et al. (1991). The values for individual taxa have been modified and extended for the Czech flora by Chytrý et al. (2018). Values with “x” indicate generalists, i.e. taxa with broad ecological range with respect to temperature.
Chytrý M., Tichý L., Dřevojan P., Sádlo J. & Zelený D. (2018) Ellenberg-type indicator values for the Czech flora. – Preslia 90: 83–103.
Ellenberg H., Weber H. E., Düll R., Wirth V., Werner W. & Paulißen D. (1991) Zeigerwerte von Pflanzen in Mitteleuropa. – Scripta Geobotanica 18: 1–248.
Indicator value for moisture is expressed on an ordinal scale from 1 to 12 defined by Ellenberg et al. (1991). The values for individual taxa have been modified and extended for the Czech flora by Chytrý et al. (2018). Values with “x” indicate generalists, i.e. taxa with broad ecological range with respect to moisture.
Chytrý M., Tichý L., Dřevojan P., Sádlo J. & Zelený D. (2018) Ellenberg-type indicator values for the Czech flora. – Preslia 90: 83–103.
Ellenberg H., Weber H. E., Düll R., Wirth V., Werner W. & Paulißen D. (1991) Zeigerwerte von Pflanzen in Mitteleuropa. – Scripta Geobotanica 18: 1–248.
Indicator value for soil or water reaction is expressed on an ordinal scale from 1 to 9 defined by Ellenberg et al. (1991). The values for individual taxa have been modified and extended for the Czech flora by Chytrý et al. (2018). Values with “x” indicate generalists, i.e. taxa with broad ecological range with respect to the reaction. In acidic environments, the value can be considered as a proxy for pH, while in near-neutral or alkaline environments it is more a proxy for calcium concentration.
Chytrý M., Tichý L., Dřevojan P., Sádlo J. & Zelený D. (2018) Ellenberg-type indicator values for the Czech flora. – Preslia 90: 83–103.
Ellenberg H., Weber H. E., Düll R., Wirth V., Werner W. & Paulißen D. (1991) Zeigerwerte von Pflanzen in Mitteleuropa. – Scripta Geobotanica 18: 1–248.
Indicator value for nutrients is expressed on an ordinal scale from 1 to 9 defined by Ellenberg et al. (1991). The values for individual taxa have been modified and extended for the Czech flora by Chytrý et al. (2018). Values with “x” indicate generalists, i.e. taxa with broad ecological range with respect to nutrient availability. The value is a proxy for availability of nitrogen or phosphorus and to some extent also a proxy for site primary productivity.
Chytrý M., Tichý L., Dřevojan P., Sádlo J. & Zelený D. (2018) Ellenberg-type indicator values for the Czech flora. – Preslia 90: 83–103.
Ellenberg H., Weber H. E., Düll R., Wirth V., Werner W. & Paulißen D. (1991) Zeigerwerte von Pflanzen in Mitteleuropa. – Scripta Geobotanica 18: 1–248.
Indicator value for salinity is expressed on an ordinal scale from 0 to 9 defined by Ellenberg et al. (1991). The values for individual taxa have been modified and extended for the Czech flora by Chytrý et al. (2018). It is a proxy for concentration in the environment of soluble salts, including sulphates, chlorides and carbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Chytrý M., Tichý L., Dřevojan P., Sádlo J. & Zelený D. (2018) Ellenberg-type indicator values for the Czech flora. – Preslia 90: 83–103.
Ellenberg H., Weber H. E., Düll R., Wirth V., Werner W. & Paulißen D. (1991) Zeigerwerte von Pflanzen in Mitteleuropa. – Scripta Geobotanica 18: 1–248.
Data on taxon occurrence in habitats of the Czech Republic are based on the analysis of vegetation plots from the Czech National Phytosociological Database (Chytrý & Rafajová 2003) and its expert revision and completion based on the literature and field experience, especially for rare and taxonomically problematic taxa. The classification recognizes 88 basic habitats aggregated to 13 broader habitats that are defined by Sádlo et al. (2007: their Appendix 1):
Taxon occurrence in each habitat is assessed on a four-degree scale:
Sádlo J., Chytrý M. & Pyšek P. (2007) Regional species pools of vascular plants in habitats of the Czech Republic. – Preslia 79: 303–321.
Chytrý M. & Rafajová M. (2003) Czech National Phytosociological Database: basic statistics of the available vegetation-plot data. – Preslia 75: 1–15.
The affinity of taxa to the forest environment is assessed using the categories of the German national list of forest taxa (Schmidt et al. 2011). Each taxon is assessed separately for the region of Thermophyticum (lowlands with thermophilous and drought-adapted flora) and merged regions of Mesophyticum and Oreophyticum (mid-elevations and mountains with mesophilous and mountain flora; Skalický 1988). The compilation was based on the list of regional species pools of Czech habitats (Sádlo et al. 2007), expert knowledge and various literature sources. It has been integrated into the European forest plant species list (Heinken et al. 2019).
Categories
Dřevojan P., Chytrý M., Sádlo J. & Pyšek P. (2016) Affinity to the forest environment. – www.pladias.cz.
Heinken T., Diekmann M., Liira J., Orczewska A., Brunet J., Chytrý M., Chabrerie O., de Frenne P., Decoq G.,
Dřevojan P., Dzwonko Z., Ewald J., Feilberg J., Graae B. J., Grytnes J. A., Hermy M., Kriebitzsch W.-U.,
Laivins M., Lindmo S., Marage D., Marozas V., Meirland A., Niemeyer T., Paal J., Pyšek P., Roosaluste E.,
Sádlo J., Schaminée J., Schmidt M., Tyler T., Verheyen K. & Wulf M. (2019) European forest plant species
list. – Fighshare, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.8095217.v1.
Sádlo J., Chytrý M. & Pyšek P. (2007) Regional species pools of vascular plants in habitats of the Czech Republic. – Preslia 79: 303–321.
Schmidt M., KriebitzschW.-U. & Ewald J. (eds) (2011) Waldartenlisten der Farn- und Blütenpflanzen, Moose und Flechten Deutschlands. – BfN-Skripten 299: 1–111.
Skalický V. (1988) Regionálně fytogeografické členění [Regional phytogeographic division]. – In: Hejný S., Slavík B., Chrtek J., Tomšovic P. & Kovanda M. (eds), Květena České socialistické republiky [Flora of the Czech Socialist Republic] 1: 103–121, Academia, Praha.
The degree of ecological specialization for individual taxa is estimated based on their co-occurrence with other taxa. The underlying assumption is that variation in the composition of co-occurring taxa indicates the range of habitat conditions suitable to this taxon (Fridley et al. 2007). A taxon repeatedly co-occurring with a similar set of taxa across different sites is more likely to be a specialist with a preference for a specific habitat. Conversely, a taxon co-occurring with various taxa across different sites is more likely to be a generalist tolerating a wide range of habitats. The ecological specialization index (ESI) of a taxon is inversely related to beta diversity calculated for the set of sites at which this taxon occurs.
The ecological specialization indices were calculated based on the vegetation plots from the Czech National Phytosociological Database (Chytrý & Rafajová 2003). Three vegetation datasets were selected from a geographically stratified subset of plots from the database: (i) a dataset including all the vegetation types (30,115 plots, 1935 taxa), (ii) a dataset including only non-forest vegetation (24,712 plots, 1875 taxa) and (iii) a dataset including only forest vegetation (5403 plots, 1264 taxa). Whittaker’s multiplicative measure of beta diversity (Whittaker 1960) rarefied to 10 vegetation plots randomly selected from a subset of plots containing the target taxon (β10) was computed for each taxon (Zelený 2009). Outlier plots with very different species composition were removed from the subset before rarefaction, following a recommendation of Botta-Dukát (2012). Because the calculated value of beta diversity decreases with increasing value of taxon specialization, the value of ESI was calculated as ESI = 10 – β10. This value theoretically ranges from 0 to 9, with high values indicating specialists and low values indicating generalists.
Each ESI value is accompanied by a taxon weight, which represents the total number of plots in which this taxon occurs within a particular dataset. The weights can be used as a measure of the reliability of the calculated ESI value for given taxon, which increases with increasing frequency of the taxon in the dataset. Minimum weight is 10, corresponding to the minimum number of occurrences for which ESI was calculated. The theoretical maximum weight is the number of plots in the given dataset.
The following specialization indices and corresponding taxon weights are available (with ranges of values in brackets):
Zelený D. & Chytrý M. (2019) Ecological Specialization Indices for species of the Czech flora. – Preslia 91: 93–116.
Botta-Dukát Z. (2012) Co-occurrence-based measure of species’ habitat specialization: robust, unbiased estimation in saturated communities. – Journal of Vegetation Science 23: 201–207.
Chytrý M. & Rafajová M. (2003) Czech National Phytosociological Database: basic statistics of the available vegetation-plot data. – Preslia 75: 1–15.
Fridley J. D., Vandermast D. B., Kuppinger D. M., Manthey M. & Peet R. K. (2007) Co-occurrence based assessment of habitat generalists and specialists: a new approach for the measurement of niche width. – Journal of Ecology 95: 707–722.
Whittaker R. H. (1960) Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California. – Ecological Monographs 30: 279–338.
Zelený D. (2009) Co-occurrence based assessment of species habitat specialization is affected by the size of
species pool: reply to Fridley et al. (2007). – Journal of Ecology 97: 10–17.
The indices characterizing plant colonization ability were published by Prach et al. (2017). The authors derived the index values for individual taxa from a database of 21 succession series (both primary and secondary succession) starting on the bare substrate. This database (Database of Successional Series, DaSS; Prach et al. 2014) contains 1013 taxa of vascular plants recorded in 2817 vegetation plots from the Czech Republic sampled in various habitats and successional stages of different age from 1 to 150 years. The following indices are defined:
Prach K., Tichý L., Vítovcová K. & Řehounková K. (2017) Participation of the Czech flora in succession at disturbed sites: quantifying species’ colonization ability. – Preslia 89: 87–100.
Chytrý M. & Rafajová M. (2003) Czech National Phytosociological Database: basic statistics of the available vegetation-plot data. – Preslia 75: 1–15.
Prach K., Řehounková K., Lencová K., Jírová A., Konvalinková P., Mudrák O., Študent V., Vaněček Z., Tichý L., Petřík P., Šmilauer P. & Pyšek P. (2014) Vegetation succession in restoration of disturbed sites in Central Europe: the direction of succession and species richness across 19 seres. – Applied Vegetation Science 17: 193–200.
The floristic zones of the Earth in which the taxon occurs are defined according to Meusel et al. (1965, 1978) and Meusel & Jäger (1992). Data were taken from the BiolFlor database (Kühn & Klotz 2002).
Categories
Kühn I. & Klotz S. (2002) Angaben zu den Arealen. – In: Klotz S., Kühn I. & DurkaW. (eds), BIOLFLOR: eine Datenbank mit biologisch-ökologischen Merkmalen zur Flora von Deutschland, Schriftenreihe für Vegetationskunde 38: 227–239.
Meusel H. & Jäger E. (1992) Vergleichende Chorologie der zentraleuropäischen Flora. Band III. – Gustav Fischer, Jena.
Meusel H., Jäger E. & Weinert E. (1965) Vergleichende Chorologie der zentraleuropäischen Flora. Band I. – Gustav Fischer, Jena.
Meusel H., Jäger E., Rauschert S. & Weinert E. (1978) Vergleichende Chorologie der zentraleuropäischen Flora. Band II. – Gustav Fischer, Jena.
The floristic region is reported as the continent or its part in which the taxon occurs according to the taxon range maps (Meusel et al. 1965, 1978, Meusel & Jäger 1992). The categories are not discrete, and some of the regions can be included within broader regions (e.g. Western Siberia – Siberia – Asia). From a set of overlapping categories, the one that best matches the taxon geographic range or its part is reported. Data were taken from the BiolFlor database (Kühn & Klotz 2002).
Kühn I. & Klotz S. (2002) Angaben zu den Arealen. – In: Klotz S., Kühn I. & DurkaW. (eds), BIOLFLOR: eine Datenbank mit biologisch-ökologischen Merkmalen zur Flora von Deutschland, Schriftenreihe für Vegetationskunde 38: 227–239.
Meusel H. & Jäger E. (1992) Vergleichende Chorologie der zentraleuropäischen Flora. Band III. – Gustav Fischer, Jena.
Meusel H., Jäger E. & Weinert E. (1965) Vergleichende Chorologie der zentraleuropäischen Flora. Band I. – Gustav Fischer, Jena.
Meusel H., Jäger E., Rauschert S. & Weinert E. (1978) Vergleichende Chorologie der zentraleuropäischen Flora. Band II. – Gustav Fischer, Jena.
The number of basic grid mapping cells (Central European Basic Area, CEBA) and the number of quadrants of the Central European flora mapping in that the taxon has been recorded within the territory of the Czech Republic are generated dynamically from the current occurrence records in the species distribution module of the Pladias Database. The basic grid cells measure 10 minutes in the west–east direction and 6 minutes in the south–north direction, which corresponds to approximately 12.0 × 11.1 km (133.2 km²) on the 50th parallel. The Czech Republic comprises 679 basic cells, including incomplete cells on the state borders. The quadrants are the basic grid cells divided into four. They measure 5 minutes in the west–east direction and 3 minutes in the south–north direction, which corresponds to approximately 6.0 × 5.55 km (33.3 km²) on the 50th parallel. Revised occurrence records marked as erroneous or uncertain are not counted.
Pladias. Database of the Czech flora and vegetation. – www.pladias.cz.
Measures of commonness in vegetation plots indicate taxon frequency in individual vegetation stands and the cover it attains. All these measures were quantified based on a set of vegetation plots representing all vegetation types of the Czech Republic, extracted from the Czech National Phytosociological Database (Chytrý & Rafajová 2003) in March 2013. These plots were classified to phytosociological associations using the expert system developed in the project Vegetation of the Czech Republic (Chytrý 2007–2013). The plots not assigned to any association were deleted, and a subset of plots of each association was selected based on a geographic stratification that reduced the unbalanced numbers of plots from different regions. The following measures of commonness were computed from the resulting set of 30,115 vegetation plots classified to 496 associations:
Chytrý M. (2016) Commonness in vegetation plots from the Czech Republic. – www.pladias.cz.
Chytrý M. (ed.) (2007–2013) Vegetace České republiky 1–4 [Vegetation of the Czech Republic 1–4]. – Academia, Praha.
Chytrý M. & Rafajová M. (2003) Czech National Phytosociological Database: basic statistics of the available vegetation-plot data. – Preslia 75: 1–15.
The number of habitat types (habitats) in which the taxon occurs was counted based on the data from the Czech National Phytosociological Database (Chytrý & Rafajová 2003) and their expert revision and completion, especially for rare and taxonomically problematic taxa. This number is a measure of the taxon’s ecological range. The classification recognizes 88 basic habitats aggregated into 13 broader habitats that are defined by Sádlo et al. (2007: their Appendix 1). The number of habitats is defined in four ways:
Sádlo J., Chytrý M. & Pyšek P. (2007) Regional species pools of vascular plants in habitats of the Czech Republic. – Preslia 79: 303–321.
Chytrý M. & Rafajová M. (2003) Czech National Phytosociological Database: basic statistics of the available vegetation-plot data. – Preslia 75: 1–15.
National Red List categories were taken from the 2017 edition of the Red List of Vascular Plants of the Czech Republic (Grulich 2017). These categories, introduced in the previous editions of the Czech Red List, are different from the IUCN Red List categories. The main category “A” includes extinct or missing taxa, while the main category “C” includes endangered, near threatened and data deficient taxa.
Grulich V. (2017) Červený seznam cévnatých rostlin ČR [The Red List of vascular plants of the Czech Republic]. – Příroda 35: 75–132.
International Red List categories defined by the IUCN were taken from the 2017 edition of the Red List of Vascular Plants of the Czech Republic (Grulich 2017). Taxon assignments to these categories follow the internationally accepted rules (IUCN 2012, 2014). To some extent, the definitions of these categories differ from the national categories used in the previous Czech Red Lists. The national Red List included only threatened or possibly threatened taxa, implying that the non-included taxa are not threatened. Therefore, the non-included taxa are classified here as LC(NA) – least concern (taxon is not on the Red List).
Grulich V. (2017) Červený seznam cévnatých rostlin ČR [The Red List of vascular plants of the Czech Republic]. – Příroda 35: 75–132.
IUCN (2012) Guidelines for application of IUCN Red List criteria at regional and national levels. Version 4.0. – IUCN, Gland.
IUCN (2014) Guidelines for using the IUCN Red List categories and criteria. Version 11. – IUCN, Gland.
Legal protection in the Czech Republic concerns the specifically protected species, i.e. rare taxa, threatened taxa and taxa significant from a cultural or scientific point of view that are listed in Annex II of the Decree of the Ministry of the Environment no. 395/1992. They comprise 487 taxa of vascular plants divided into three categories according to their vulnerability: critically threatened, endangered and vulnerable.
Decree no. 395/1992 of the Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic.